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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41, 1951 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


* CHARLES DRECHSLER WiiiiaM EF. FosuHaG J. P. E. Morrison 
PLANT INDUSTRY STATION U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S& NATIONAL MUSEUM 


BELTSVILLE, MD. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


J.C. Ewrrs J. I. Horrman 
ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY T. PR. THAYER 
ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY 
F. A. CHAce, JR. Miriam L. BomHArRD 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 


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PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
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ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 41 


No. 


No. : 


No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
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. 1-48, January 18, 1951 

. 49-84, February 23, 1951 
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. 213-244, July 31, 1951 

. 245-276, August 27, 1951 
9, pp. 
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277-308, September 24, 1951 


11, pp. 341-372, November 14, 1951 


. 12, pp. 373-404, December 26, 1951 


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: i) \ + 
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Vo. 41 re ee od No. 1 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Frank C. KRAcEK FREDERICK J. HERMANN WILLIAM F. FosHaG 
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 
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ENGINEERING 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 January 1951 No. 1 
& 
AUS TIN HOBART CLARK ISSUE 
Bd 
DEDICATION 


THE PAPERS appearing in this issue of the JouRNAL are written by friends and 
colleagues of Austin Hobart Clark and form a slight token of their respective 
authors’ regard for him and tor his work.* As may be seen from their contents, the 
papers cover a wide range of material and interests. This is eminently as it should 
be, for few biologists of our time have embraced within the extent of their knowledge 
and the scope of their sympathies so many and such diverse portions of the fauna 
and flora of the world. Although his main published works deal with the echino- 
derms, and particularly with the crinoids, his bibliography includes many and 
important contributions to our knowledge of birds, of butterflies, of Peripatus, of 
flowering plants, and even of topics so difficult to classify and pigeonhole as ‘“‘general 
natural history.’ He was for long a leading figure in the popularization of natural 
history and a prolific contributor to its literature, as witnessed by his two little 
volumes of Nature narratives. He was a pioneer in the now widespread use of current 
scientific data and materials by the newspapers and was one of the first to sense the 
application of the radio to the dissemination of scientific news and thoughts. For 
many years he served as the press and publicity official for the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science, and he did much to build up the techniques of 
“science reporting” in this country. 

To his colleagues he was, and is, a man to whom anyone could converse about his 
own pet specialty or even tangential interest with the assurance not only that he 
would be understood but also that it would elicit some stimulating and thought- 
provoking comment from him. An unusually broad acquaintance with the forms of 
living things and a remarkably retentive memory for the literature about them 
have given Clark the background for such books as his Animals of land and sea and 
Animals alive, while his lively curiosity about them conditioned his thinking as 
expressed in his book on Zoogenesis. 

When a man attains the age at which his colleagues think of expressing publicly 
their esteem of him, it is often assumed that he is about to merge gracefully with 
the ghosts of the forerunners of his particular science. I am confident that none of 
his many friends have any such thought in mind. Those who know him best are 
aware that his mind is far too active to assume a passive status and feel that were 
he to become a ghost he would probably lose no time in organizing among his fellow 
spirits a new society for the cultivation of scientific interests. 

Herpert FRIEDMANN. 


* See note on page 48. 


san 24 108! 


AUSTIN HOBART CLARK 


ZOOLOGIST, BIOLOGIST, NATURALIST 
AUTHORITY ON ECHINODERMS, PARTICULARLY THE CRINOIDEA 
SCIENCE WRITER AND AUTHOR 


Born at Wellesley, Mass., December 17, 
1880; prepared for college in the high school 
and in Cutler’s School, Newton, Mass.; 
entered Harvard in 1899, graduated with 
A.B. degree in 1903. 

Member of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences since April 8, 1912; has been one of 
its most indefatigable workers and staunch- 
est supporters over the years; president in 
1941 and before and since that time vice- 
president representing two of the affliated 
societies, Archeological in 1922, 1923 and 
Entomological, 1936, 1939-1944; member of 
the Board of Managers 1926-28, Committee 
on Meetings 1920-21, 1938, 1939, Committee 
on Membership 1934, 1938, Committee on 
Awards for Scientific Achievement (first gen- 
eral chairman) 1940, Subcommittee on 
Awards in Biological Sciences 1940, 1943, 
Committee on Policy and Planning 1941-51, 
Committee on Encouragement of Science 
Talent 1950-52. 

Chief interest, animal life. This, he tells 
us, began about at the age of 10. Already in 
1898 he was abroad a year “getting ac- 
quainted with European creatures,” and in 
the following summer he learned to know 
more of the American ones in the mountains 
of Tennessee. Two years later, at the head 
of a personally organized expedition, he was 
investigating the flora and fauna of Marga- 
rita Island, Venezuela; the published results 
led to his election as a fellow of the Royal 
(London) Geographic Society in 1904. Fol- 
lowing graduation from college in 1903, after 
a brief sojourn at the then newly established 
Bermuda biological station, he spent two 
years exploring the Lesser Antilles. There- 
after, joining the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, 
he served as naturalist on the 1906 cruise of 
the Fisheries steamer Albatross to Japan. 

Professional career: Collaborator (honor- 
ary), United States National Museum 1908; 
assistant curator, Division of Marine In- 
vertebrates 1909-20; curator, Division of 
Echinoderms 1920-50; retired December 31, 
1950; in 1923 established a series of weekly 
radio talks given in the name of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


Affiliations: American Association for the 
Advancement of Science (news manager and 
director press service, 1924-89 in charge 
radio programs, centennial meeting, Wash- 
ington, D. C., 1948); International Com- 
mittee on Radio (Comité International de la 
T.S.F.); American Geophysical Union 
(chairman for Oceanographic Section); Ad- 
visory Committee on Source Bed Studies of 
the American Petroleum Institute and Amer- 
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists; 
American Association of Museums; Carnegie 
Corporation and Rockefeller Foundation 
Conference on Place of Science in Education; 
Virginia Academy of Science; (2d honorary 
member; committee on long-range planning 
and science education) ; Executive Committee 
of the Southern Association of Science and 
Industry; Eighth American Scientific Con- 
egress (press relations officer); National Parks 
Association (trustee); Navy Oceanographic 
Conference (1924); National Association of 
Science Writers (first honorary member); 
American Society of Naturalists; American 
Ornithologists’ Union; Lepidopterists So- 
ciety (vice-president); Biological Society of 
Washington; Entomological Society; Cam- 
bridge (Massachusetts) Entomological Club; 
aide-de-camp to the Prince of Monaco during 
the latter’s visit to this country in 1921. In 
1927 His Majesty, the King of Denmark and 
Iceland, conferred upon Austin Clark the 
Cross of a Knight of the Order of Dannebrog. 

Author of more than 650 papers, treatises, 
and books, technical and popular, chiefly in 
the field of zoology, marine biology, ocea- 
nography, and natural history, ermoids, echi- 
noderms, birds, and Lepidoptera. 

Publications especially worthy of mention 
are: A Monograph of the existing crinoids; 
The new evolution—Zoogenesis; Nature nar- 
ratives; Butterflies of the District of Columbia; 
Animals of land and sea; Animals alive. 

Married Mary Wendell Upham 1906, de- 
ceased 932% children, two sons, three daugh- 
ters; 6 grandchildren. Married, Leila Gay 
Forbes, 1933. 

W. LS. 


a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 1 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New brachiopods from the Lower Cambrian of Virginia. 
G. ArTHUR Coorrr, U.S. National Museum. 


The brachiopods described and _ figured 
herein were collected by several geologists 
during investigations of the geology about 
Austinville, Va. The first lot of material 
was collected by W. Horatio Brown, chief 
geologist for the New Jersey Zine Co. at 
the Bertha Mineral Co. in 1929. Later col- 
lections were made by Charles Butts, E. O. 
Ulrich, George W. and Anna J. Stose, and 
Charles E. Resser. Most of the brachiopods 
were too poorly preserved to be recovered 
from the matrix in identifiable form, but 
from the large quantity of material collected 
it was possible to prepare a few first-rate 
specimens. 

The chief obstacle to successful prepara- 
tion of the specimens was tight cementation 
to the limestone matrix enclosing them. 
Several were destroyed in attempting to 
split them out of the matrix, because the 
pedicle valve posterior always failed to 
crack away from the surrounding rock. The 
same was true after the rock was roasted 
and plunged in cold water. The anterior and 
lateral parts of pedicle valves were released, 
but perfect beaks were never obtained. The 
reason for this difficulty proved to be a 
large foramen near the apex through which 
the filling of the inside was joined to the 
matrix outside the shell. After this discovery 
several specimens were cleaned that showed 
the large apical foramen, which is of con- 
siderable interest in brachiopod taxonomy. 

These new genera occur in a reef lime- 
stone in the Lower Cambrian (Shady) for- 
mation with the brachiopods Kutorgina, 
Nisusia, Swantonia, and Yorkia. Character- 
istic Lower Cambrian trilobites occurring 
in the same rock are: Kootenia, Rimouskia, 
Bonnia, and Labradoria. These clearly fix 
the age of the peculiar forms here discussed. 

The two species herein described are 
named in honor of Austin H. Clark in recog- 
nition of his great contributions to taxonomy 
and biology. 


Eoconcha, n. gen. 


Shell spiriferoid in appearance, strongly and 
subequally biconvex, with a wide hinge that may 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


or may not form the greatest shell width; brachial 
valve sulcate; pedicle valve with a low median 
fold; surface marked by strong direct and inter- 
calated costae. 

Palintrope of pedicle valve well developed, 
generally apsacline; delthryium covered by a 
convex pseudodeltidium; foramen moderately 
large, located at or anterior to the apex as in 
Nisusia. Teeth small, inconspicuous, forming by 
their forward growth a marginal thickening along 
lateral edges of delthryium; dental plates absent. 

Brachial valve with flattened brachiophores 
located under the notothyrial edge and without 
supporting plates as in Nisusza. Seat of diductor 
muscle attachment a small callosity located at 
the apex of the notothryial cavity. Muscular 
(adductor) scar elongate, located in front of no- 
tothyrial callosity on each side of median line. 

Genotype: Hoconcha austint, n. sp. 

Discussion.—The internal characters of this 
genus are essentially the same as those of Nisusia 
with the exception that in the latter a trace of 
dental plates has been detected (Cooper,” p. 213). 
Thus the generic definition of this peculiar bra- 
chiopod is based mainly on the external features. 
Although the nature of the pseudodeltidium and 
palintropes is like that of Niswsia the ornamen- 
tation, profile and folding are different. The 
ornamentation of Hoconcha consists of simple, 
strong costae that extend from the beak to the 
anterior margins or may be intercalated at the 
front or middle of the shell. The characteristic 
spines of the Nisusia exterior are not present in 
this new genus. 

The brachial valve is provided with a fairly 
deep median sulcus while the pedicle valve has a 
more or less well-defined fold. The presence of a 
sulcus on the brachial valve is a feature common 
to geologically early or immature brachiopods 
particularly those of the Orthacea. The brachial 
sulcus is here regarded as a primitive character. 

The actual apical foramen in the specimen on 
which this genus and species is based was not 
seen except in one specimen. It is inferred in the 
others from the fact that the beaks of all pedicle 
valves are broken away. This is a common fea- 
ture also of specimens of Nisusia similarly pre- 
served. 

> Cooppr, G. A. New Cambrian brachiopods 


from Alaska. Journ. Paleont. 10 (3): 210-214, pl. 
26. 1936. 


JANUARY 1951 


Eoconcha austini, n. sp. 


Biconvex, wider than long, with the hinge 
forming the widest part or narrower than the 
midwidth; cardinal extremities acutely or ob- 
tusely angular. Surface costate with 9-13 costae. 

Pedicle valve moderately convex to subpyram- 
idal in lateral profile, strongly and somewhat 
narrowly rounded in anterior profile; median 
fold originating posterior to the middle, not 
greatly elevated above the surface of the valve 
and composed of one to three costae. Lateral 
slopes convex and moderately steep. Beak ob- 
tuse; interarea moderately long, apsacline. 

Brachial valve moderately convex in lateral 
profile and more broadly convex than the pedicle 
valve in anterior profile. Sulcus shallow, narrow, 
extending from beak to anterior margin and us- 
ually occupied by one costa which is depressed 
below the two strong costae bounding the sulcus. 
Flanks with moderately steep slopes to the car- 
dinal extremities. 

Measurements in mm.—Pedicle valve (U.S.N. 
M. no. 111691-a), length 9.2, midwidth 12.0, 
hinge-width 11.7; (111691-e) length 10.3, mid- 
width 12.9, hinge-width 12.7, thickness about 
5. Brachial valves (111691-i) length 9.8, mid- 
width 15.4, hinge-width 13.9, thickness 3.9?; 
(111691-k) length 9.4, midwidth 13.7, hinge- 
width 15.4?, thickness 4.1? 

Types—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-a; fig- 
ured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111691-d, f, g, h, 
k, m; unfigured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111691- 
ID) GG th tly Ie 

Horizon and locality.—Shady formation, 1 mile 
east of Austinville, Max Meadows quadrangle, 
Va. 

Discussion.—The strong costae of the exterior 
distinguish this from any known species of 
Nisusia. No other species of Hoconcha is now 
known. 


Matutella, n. gen. 


Shell fairly large, syntrophoid in profile and 
outline; brachial valve strongly uniplicate, pedicle 
valve deeply sulcate; hinge wide; ornamenta- 
tion consisting of irregular intercalated and bi- 
furcating costellae. 

Pedicle umbo pierced by a large longitudinally 
oval foramen; palintrope short, delthyrium mod- 
erately wide, covered by a convex pseudodeltid- 
ium. Dental plates absent. Diductor sears flabel- 
late. 


COOPER: NEW BRACHIOPODS FROM VIRGINIA iS) 


Brachial valve with long flat palintrope with 
exceptionally broad interarea; notothyrium wide, 
other details of the interior uncertain. 

Genotype: Matutella clark, n. sp. 

Discussion.—This genus is quite unlike any 
other known Paleozoic brachiopod in the extent 
to which the foramen is developed. This wide 
foramen existing with a delthyrium covered by 
a convex pseudodeltidium suggests relationship 
to the members of the Nisusiidae. Matutella 
differs from Nisusia and FHoconcha in the ex- 
ceptionally large foramen and the syntrophoid 
shape and form of the valves. It differs further 
from Hoconcha in having the high fold on the 
brachial valve and the deep sulcus on the pedicle 
valve. 

This unusual brachiopod combines primitive 
and advanced characters to form a paradoxical 
genus. The external form is that of one of the later 
brachiopods such as Syntrophina, Platystrophia, 
or a narrow-hinged spiriferoid. Casual inspection 
has led observers to regard specimens as of later 
age than the Cambrian, so unusual is its form. 
The strong convexity of both valves is an unusual 
feature for an early brachiopod. Along with the 
convexity, as an advanced character, is the deep 
folding of both valves and the localization of the 
foldtothe brachial valve. In contemporary Nisusia 
the folding is not standardized as it is in Matutella, 
the same species often showing a faint fold or 
suleus on the pedicle or brachial valve. This 
lack of stability in folding is a primitive character 
whereas the strong localization of the fold to the 
brachial valve is a feature that has become fixed 
in most of the advanced members of the Pro- 
tremata. 

Although the folding is that of an advanced 
brachiopod the ornamentation of  Matutella 
is primitive in its lack of standardization and the 
wavy character of the costellae. 

The most unusual feature of the genus is the 
large foramen that occupies nearly or all of the 
stronely convex umbo. The beak is located at 
the narrow end of the oval and is thickened and 
strengthened at this point. The foramen varies 
in size on four specimens from 8 by 2 mm to 
5 by 84mm. So far as can be observed the shell 
is not noticeably thickened around the margins 
of the foramen except in the vicinity of the beak. 

The interarea of the pedicle valve of Matutella 
is like that of most brachiopods having this form 
and convexity. It is short, curved generally 
orthocline or anacline. The teeth are small and 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


located at the basal angles of the delthyrium as 
usual in most brachiopods. The pseudodeltidium 
is narrowly elevated and considerably thickened 
from the inside and very effectively covers the 
delthyrium. The latter obviously did not serve 
as a pedicle opening in this genus. Much of the 
shell of Matutella was so thin that mere traces of 
the musculature occur on any of the specimens 
where the valves have been exfoliated. Faint 
markings that are possible flabellate diductors 
occur on internal impressions on the antero- 
lateral extremities on each side of the foramen. 

The thin shell and poor preservation combine 
to make preparation of internal characters of the 
brachial valve almost impossible. The palintrope 
of this valve is quite unusual in its length and 
breadth. It is usually deeply striated parallel 
to the hinge-line by interruptions in growth. 
The notothyrium is wide but on its margins the 
characteristic thickenings of brachiophores were 
not seen on any of the specimens nor were any 
well-defined sockets seen. One specimen indicates 
the rudiments of a chilidium in an upward wave 
of the palintrope at the beak. The musculature is 
as indefinite as the rest of the structures of this 
valve. Several exfoliated specimens show vague 
markings suggesting the musculature of the bra- 
chial valve of Nisusia. 


Matutella clarki, n. sp. 


Shell large for a Cambrian genus, wider than 
long, with the hinge slightly less than the greatest 
shell width, which is located a short distance 


voL. 41, No. 1 


anterior to the middle. Cardinal extremities ob- 
tuse or nearly rectangular with small ears on 
pedicle valve. Sides moderately convex; anterior 
commissure strongly uniplicate. Surface marked 
by narrowly rounded radiating but irregular 
costellae which fade out on the cardinal extrem- 
ities. Costellae increasing by bifurcation and in- 
tercalation. Fine concentric growth lines over the 
entire shell. 

Pedicle valve moderately convex in lateral 
profile but with the umbonal region truncated by 
the foramen; anterior profile deeply suleate; sul- 
cus originating slightly anterior to the foramen, 
deepening and widening rapidly to equal about 
half the width of the valve; sulcus extended to- 
ward the brachial valve into a long and sharply 
pointed tongue bent nearly at right angles to the 
lateral commissure. Flanks bounding sulcus nar- 
rowly rounded in anterior profile with steep 
slopes to the cardinal extremities. Interarea short, 
about orthocline in position. Beak small incurved; 
foramen large and longitudinally elliptical. 

Brachial valve gently convex im lateral pro- 
file, most noticeably convex in the umbonal 
region; anterior profile almost semicircular but 
with flattened top; fold origmating less than one- 
third the length from the beak, narrowly rounded 
to subcarinate and most strongly elevated at 
anterior. Flanks bounding fold gently rounded 
and with steep slopes to the sides and cardinal 
extremities. Interarea long, orthocline (?). 

Measurements in mm.—Holotype, pedicle 
valve, length 13.4, width at middle 17.6, hinge- 


Fias. 1-38.—Nisusia borealis Cooper: 1, Apical view of young pedicle valve showing elevated pseudo- 
deltidium and large foramen, X38, U.S.N.M. no. 91903-a; 2, 3, respectively posterior and apical views 
of an incomplete adult pedicle valve, X4, showing elevated pseudodeltidium, hypotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
111692. Introduced for comparison with Hoconcha and Matutella. 

Frias. 4-7, 9-14.—Hoconcha austini Cooper, n. gen., n. sp.: 4, Posterior view of an impression of the 
interior of a pedicle valve showing convex pseudodeltidium and thickening along delthyrial edge rep- 
resenting growth track of teeth, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-d; 5, impression of apex of pedicle 
valve showing convex pseudodeltidium, 2, holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-a; 10, 11, posterior and apical 
views of a wax replica of the pedicle valve prepared from impression illustrated in Fig. 5 (shows pseudo- 
deltidium and foramen, the latter imperfectly, <2); 6, 7, respectively posterior and brachial views of 
the impression of a brachial valve, X2, X14, showing impression of brachiophores, paratype, U.S.N.M. 
no. 111691-g; 9, posterior view of an internal impression of a pedicle valve showing fractured apex in- 
dicating presence of open foramen, X1, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-m; 12, wax replica of interior 
of a brachial valve showing primitive brachiophores, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-h; 13, impres- 
sion of a brachial valve showing costae, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-k; 14, impression of brachial 
interior showing probable adductor muscle impressions, <2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-f. 

Fras. 8, 15-27.—Matutella clarki Cooper, n. gen., n. sp.: 8, Pedicle interarea showing rounded pseudo- 
deltidium, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-c; 19, 25, exterior of two pedicle valves, X1, respectively 
holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-a, and paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-d; 15, 29, 24, respectively anterior, 
exterior, and posterior views of the pedicle valve, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-d; 16, exterior 
of a large but imperfect brachial valve, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-k; 17. Imperfect brachial 
valve showing ornamentation, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-g; 18, 23, respectively posterior and 
exterior views of the holotype, X2. showing foramen and ornamentation; 22, fragment of exterior en- 
larged to show details of costella, X3. paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-e; 21, 26, 27, respectively side, 
1, internal impression, and exterior views of a brachial valve, X2, paratype U.S.N.M. no. 111689-n. 
(Fig. 27 is a wax replica of the exterior taken from an impression of the exterior.) 


JANUARY 1951 


width 13.1, width of sulcus 9.6, thickness 3.7. 
Brachial valve (U.S.N.M. no. 111689-n) meas- 
ured on half specimen, then doubled to obtain 
approximate measurements, length 13.2, mid- 
width 17:2, thickness 9.2. 

Types.—Holotype, U.8.N.M. no. 111689-a; fig- 


> ee 1g eu Reset 


fae 


COOPER: NEW BRACHIOPODS FROM VIRGINIA 7 


ured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111689-c, d, e, g, 
k, n; unfigured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 
111689-b, f, h, i,j, 1, m, o. 

Horizon and locality.—Shady formation (reefs), 
Buddle Branch, ? mile northeast of Austinville, 
Max Meadows quadrangle, Va. 


Fias. 1-27.—(See opposite page for legend). 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADMEY OF SCIENCES 


DISCUSSION OF THE GENERA 

The brachiopods discussed herein are of 
considerable interest because they are ob- 
viously highly specialized along certain lines, 
yet they are among the earliest of known 
articulate brachiopods. They are thus primi- 
tive but highly specialized brachiopods. 
Paterina was regarded by Beecher and Schu- 
chert as the most primitive brachiopod and 
the one nearest the theoretical brachiopod 
progenitor. Inasmuch as these peculiar shells 
from Virginia occur with the primitive 
Paterina, they have an interesting and sig- 
nificant importance in brachiopod taxonomy 
and phylogeny. They help to emphasize the 
fact that in the articulates the pseudodelti- 
dium is a primitive feature, whereas the 
unmodified delthyrium is an advanced char- 
acter. They also indicate that the articulates 
must have a long ancestry in the pre-Cam- 
brian. Paterina itself must be considered as 
an early but highly specialized brachiopod. 
Its structure is so unusual that it must be 
ruled out as near the progenitor of the 
brachiopods. The most primitive shelled 
brachiopod is yet to be found. 

Although the presence of a pseudodelti- 
dium is an accepted primitive character in 
articulate brachiopods, it has not been suffi- 
ciently emphasized that an apical foramen 
is also a primitive character. The foramina 
of the genera herein described and of Nisusza 
differ from those of later genera having an 
apical foramen in the size and location of 
the opening. In these early Cambrian genera 
such as Nisusia the foramen is excavated 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


in the pedicle umbo rather than in the apex, 
a position that is seldom occupied by a 
foramen other than the type produced by 
anterior pedicle migration in the later bra- 
chiopods. This is especially true of Matutella 
with its strongly arched beak the umbo of 
which is truncated by a large oval foramen. 
This foramen is quite unlike any other 
known and is not produced by resorption 
of the beak due to pedicle pressure as often 
takes place in the Terebratulacea. A foramen 
like that of Nisuwsza occurs in later brachi- 
opods in the young of many Strophomenidae 
such as Leptaena, Strophomena and Christi- 
ania in which extremely youthful shells 
have the apex occupied by a large foramen. 
Although the young of the Strophomenidae 
are often Nisusza-like in their appearance it 
is not at present possible to derive this 
group out of Nizsusva for the simple reason 
that the first unquestioned strophomenid, 
Taffia, occurs in the Upper Canadian. No 
forms are known that bridge the long time 
gulf between the two. 

Cambrian Articulate brachiopods are too 
poorly known to state whether or not Nz- 
susta and allies disappeared without issue. 
The known later Cambrian brachiopods are- 
either without apical foramina, have an 
open delthyrium (Hoorthis) or have the 
foramen confined to the deltidium (Billing- 
sella. For the present it is best Just to em- 
phasize the fact that the earliest known _ 
Articulates had a more or less large foramen 
situated on the pedicle umbo anterior to 
the apex of the pseudodeltidium or trun- 
cating the apex because of pedicle pressure. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Two new guide fossils from the Tallahatta formation of the 
Southeastern States.! JULIA GARDNER, U.S. Geological Survey. 


Though the name of Austin Hobart Clark 
is most closely associated with echinoderms, 
butterflies, and birds, most of us who have 
frequented the United States National Mu- 
seum for the past few decades have, from 
time to time, sought Mr. Clark’s aid on 
problems in our own particular fields, and 
not in vain. All animals alive are his interest, 
even Homo sapiens. The two species about 
to be inscribed to him are long since dead, 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey, Received October 6, 1950. 


to be sure, but the inscription does not seem 
inappropriate, for as Mr. Clark has served 
as our guide, philosopher, and friend, helping 
us to orient ourselves and to check our posi- 
tions in the world about us, so wavering 
students coming upon these fossils may find 
them dependable guides to the Tallahatta 
formation of the middle Eocene, usually to 
the upper part of the Tallahatta. 


Genus Anodontia Link, 1807 


Anodontia Link, Beschreibung der Naturalien- 
Sammlung der Universitit zu Rostock, pt. 3: 
157. 1807. 


JANUARY 1951 GARDNER: GUIDE FOSSILS 

Type by monotypy: Ancdontia alba Link = 
Venus edentula Linnaeus. 

Link styled his genus the Glattmuschel and 
briefly characterized it as: Equivalve, the valves 
closed, without ears; the hinge without teeth; 
the anterior muscle scar much longer than the 
posterior; the ligament external. He cited two 
references—Chemnitz’s Conchylien-Cabinet 7: pl. 
39, figs. 410 and 411, which illustrate a venerid; 
and the Gmelin of Linnaeus, p. 3286. Figures 
408 and 409 of plate 39 of Chemnitz illustrate the 
“Venusof Jamaica’ and figures 427 to 429 on plate 
40, Venus edentula. The mechanics of the typo- 
graphical error that resulted in the reference as it 
appeared in Link are difficult to reconstruct. 
The explanation suggested by Stewart (pp. 179- 
180) forced him to the unhappy necessity of 

2? Stewart, Raupu B., Gabb’s California Creta- 
ceous and Tertiary type lamellibranchs, Acad. Nat. 


Sci. Philadelphia Spec. Publ. no. 3, 314 pp., 17 pls. 
1930. 


Fic. 1.—Anodontia? augustana Gardner, n. sp.: @ i 
view of double valves of holotype; c, hinge of incomplete paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 560588); d, fragment 
of hinge of paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 560590); e, exterior of broken anterior dorsal margin (U.S.N.M. 
no. 560590). All natural size. 


FROM TALLAHATTA FORMATION 9 


designating Lucina jamaicensis Lamarck as the 
genotype. A simpler interpretation was offered 
in a discussion with Dr. Harald A. Rehder, Cura- 
tor of mollusks in the United States National 
Museum. He suggested that Link may never have 
even seen the Conchylien-Cabinet, that he took 
the reference to Chemnitz directly from Gmelin, 
but that in so doing his eye slipped up the page 
and he copied the notation under the preceding 
snecies, V. scripta (pl. 39, figs. 410-411) in place 
of that under Venus edentula (pl. 40, figs. 427— 
429). That solution is here accepted. 


Anodontia? augustana Gardner, n. sp. 


Fig. 1, a-e 


Shells large, most commonly represented by 
globose molds of the interior, broader than they 
are high and subject to distortion by a shortening 
along the vertical axis; in the normal shells, the 
distance from the beaks to the ventral margin is 


, Side view of right valve of holotype; 6, umbonal 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


only a little more than the diameter. In place of 
a lunule, a flaring anterior margin, reflected over 
the umbones somewhat in the manner of the 
pholads. Shell flattening toward the posterior 
dorsal margin but no defined escutcheon. Hinge 
edentulous. Ligament groove deep, the ligament 
conspicuous, and in some of the larger specimens 
arching above the escutcheon; ligament and re- 
silium may have been partially separated. Muscle 
scars not traceable in any of the shells available. 
Obscure radiating lines, about six to the centi- 
meter, evident on molds of interior. No defined 
sculpture pattern on exterior of shell but an ir- 
regular concentric wrinkling over the entire outer 
surface. 

Dimensions of holotype, an interior mold of 
paired valves with fragments of shell adhering: 
Height, 60 mm; width, 78 mm; diameter, 57 mm. 
Paratypes too fragmentary to measure. 

Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 560587, from Lisbon 
Bluff, Alabama River, 3 feet or less below the 
contact of the Tallahatta and Lisbon formations, 
Monroe County, Ala. Paratype (Fig. 1, c), U.S. 
N.M. no. 560588, from U.S.G.S. station 15159, 
Fort Gaines-Abbeville road just south of the 
bridge over McRae Creek, Henry County, Ala. 
Paratype (Fig. 1, d-e), U.'S.N.M. no. 560590, from 
US.G.S. station 15475, south slope to Little 
Choctawatchee River, on State Highway 66, 
Houston County, Ala. 

The upward flare of the anterior dorsal margin 
is unlike that of any known Recent or fossil 
lucinoid and probably is a character of more than 
specific value. But the material is so limited and 
so fragmentary that, awaiting further evidence, 
the species is referred to Anodontia sensu lato. 

Anodontia? augustana must have been a fragile 
shell and in need of protection through the en- 
vironment. It probably lived on soft muddy 
bottoms near the mouths of rivers and in sheltered 
bays in water of shallow or only moderate depths 
sheltered from strong current action. Such bot- 
tom conditions are reflected in the fine silicified 
clays of the so-called Buhrstone of the Tallahatta 
formation. 

Anodontia augustana has been recorded from 
the following U.S.G.S. stations: 


No number. NW3 sec. 34, T. 11 N., R.2 W., east of 
Toxey, Choctaw County, Ala. 

17919. Little Stave Creek, directly below Talla- 
hatta-Lisbon contact; about 44 miles north of 
Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

14785-g. Little Stave Creek, between 5 and 10 feet 


voL. 41, No. 1 


below Tallahatta-Lisbon contact; about 44 
miles north of Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

15924. Contact of siliceous clay and overlying 
greensand, 3 miles northeast of Chilton on 
Thomasville road, Clarke County, Ala. 

15925. Long slope leading down to Silver Creek 
about 6 miles west-southwest of Chance on 
Dickenson road, Clarke County, Ala. 

15920. About 13 miles west of Chance on Dickenson 
road, Clarke County, Ala. 

17090. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, 3 feet or less 
below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. Type locality. 

13442. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, within 10 
feet of. Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. 

13441. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, within 10.5 
feet of Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. 

15132. Railroad cut in south center of sec. 14, T. 
8 N., R. 8 E., Monroe County, Ala. 

15480. East bank of Conecuh River about 200 
yards above highway bridge at River Falls, 
Covington County, Ala. 

11091. Hays Creek at Bedsole’s old mill road from 
Elba to Kinston, S} sec. 15, T. 4 N., R. 19 E., 
Coffee County, Ala. 

15159. Road cut on Fort Gaines-Abbeville road 
just south of the bridge over McRae Creek, 
center sec. 12, T. 17 N., R. 29 E., Henry 
County, Ala. 

15475. South slope to Little Choctawhatchee River 
in road cut on new State Highway 66, SE} 
sec. 34, T. 4 N., R. 24 E., Houston County, 
Ala. Shells silicified. 

7728. Warley Hill, 7 miles southeast of Fort Motte 
on Lonestar road, Calhoun County, 8. C. A 
mold 92 mm wide from Bed No. 8 of Cooke 
section. 

No number. Road cut on South side of Halfway 
Swamp Creek about 2; miles northwest of 
Creston,’ Calhoun County, S. C. A mold 140 
mm wide from the Congaree clay of Sloan. 


Genus Spiratella de Blainville, 1817 


Spiratella de Blainville, Dictionnaire des sciences 
naturelles 9: 407. 1817. = Limacina Lamarck, 
1819. 


Type by original designation and monotypy: 
Clio helicina Phipps (exceedingly abundant in 
Arctic waters). 


Spiratella augustana Gardner, n. sp. 
Fig. 2, a-c 


Shell very small. Whorls 4 to 43, sinistrally 
coiled in a nearly horizontal plane, the body em- 
bracing the whorls of the spire as in Planorbis. 
The aperture higher than it is wide, the body ex- 
panding at the aperture both vertically and hor- 


JANUARY 1951 


izontally ; the outer surface of the preceding whorl 
forming the inner wall of the aperture; posterior 
margin of the body folded into the suture. The 
visible surface of the apical whorls rounded, 
searcely elevated above the plane of the body. 
Umbilical area narrowly funicular. No sculpture 
other than obscure incrementals and the cording 
of the adult margin of the outer lip. 

Dimensions of holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 560589: 
Maximum diameter, 3 mm; diameter at right 
angles to the maximum diameter, 2.6 mm; min- 
imum diameter 2.3 mm; height, 1.5 mm. 

Type locality: U.S.G.S. station 17911, between 
15 and 20 feet below the contact of the Tallahatta 
and Lisbon formations and 4 feet above the 
stream bed of Little Stave, 43 miles north of 
Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

Eyen the ordinal relationships of these shells 
resembling small sinistral Planorbis and locally 
common in the marine faunas of the upper Talla- 
hatta baffled me. I sought the guidance of that 
dean of malacologists, Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, and 
to good purpose. I am grateful to him for his 
never-failing aid. 

The species I described in 1927 as Planorbis 

andersoni? is doubtless closely related, though not 
identical. The Texas form is smaller, which may 
or may not be significant. It is also more com- 
pressed and is more regular in form. The outer 
lip is less expanded, and the body whorl, both on 
the apical and umbilical surfaces, is rather sharply 
keeled. The locality, U.S.G:S. station 9264, three- 
fourths of a mile south of Elkhart, Anderson 
County, Tex., is in the Weches greensand member 
of the Mount Selman formation, which correlates 
roughly with the Tallahatta formation. 
* The range of variation in these small forms is 
difficult to establish. They vary in size, in the 
height of the spire, and, owing largely to warping, 
in the outline of the outer lip. The type individ- 
ual is one of the largest collected, the apical 
whorls are less elevated than in many, and the 
margin of the outer lip is broken, destroying the 
minutely elliptical outline of the aperture, which 
is characteristic of the species. 

Probably the fossil pteropods have a much 
wider distribution than the literature indicates, 
for the shells are all small and easily overlooked. 

3 GARDNER, JuLIA A., New species of mollusks 


from the Eocene of Texas. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci., 17 (14): 362-383, 4 pls., 44 figs. 1927. 


GARDNER: GUIDE, FOSSILS FROM TALLAHATTA FORMATION 11 


Among the related forms are Limacina inflata 
(d’Orbigny), 1835, a warm-water Recent species, 


Seen Lim @) 


Fre. 2.—Sprratella augustana Gardner, n. sp.: 
a, Apical view of holotype; 0, profile of holotype; 
c, umbilical view of holotype. 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and Limacina elevata Collins,* described from 
the middle Miocene of Santa Rosa, Veracruz, 
Mexico. . 

Many of the Recent species, possibly the 
majority, are to be found in the plankton of the 
Arctic. 

The distribution of Spiratella augustana, like 
that of other planktonic forms, is independent 
of the character of the bottom except as bottom 
conditions affect the preservation of the dead 
shell. The species is contained in glauconitic 
sandy clays, glauconitic sands, and blocky si- 
liceous clays. Except for a few interruptions by 
oyster reefs, Spiratella augustana is disseminated 
through almost the entire upper 57 feet of Talla- 
hatta exposed along Little Stave Creek, at Lis- 
bon Bluff and in a few nearby localities. The 
species seems also to lightly overstep the Talla- 
hatta-Lisbon contact and may be recorded by a 
few closely related if not identical individuals in 
the lower 10 feet of the Lisbon formation. 

Disrripution: Tallahatta formation. Little 
Stave Creek, 43 miles north of Jackson, Clarke 
County, Alabama; U.S.G.S. station 14785 b-c, 
from 10 to 20 feet below the Ostrea johnsoni bed; 

4Conuins, Ropert LEE, A monograph of the 
American Tertiary pteropod mollusks. Johns Hop- 


kins Univ. Stud. Geol. no. 11: 137-234, pls. 7-14. 
1934. 


VOL. 41, No. I 


U.S.G.S. station 14431, 40 feet below the top of 
the Tallahatta formation; between the Ostrea 
johnson bed and the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, 
U.S.G.S. stations 14785 f-h, 17910, 17911, 17918, 
17907, 17909, 17912, 17926, 17927, 17916 a-b, 
17919 a: Lisbon Bluff, Lisbon Landing, Ala- 
bama River, Monroe County, Ala.; U.S.G.S. 
station 13430, bluish-black clay at base of sec- 
tion; U.S.G.S. stations 13440 and 134438, in- 
durated layer about 8 feet below the Tallahatta- 
Lisbon contact; and U.S.G.S. station 13442, dense 
blue-gray clay with lucinoid molds directly be- 
low the fucoidal layer and not more than 5 feet 
below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact; U.S.G.S. 
station 14799, 3.8 miles east of Silas on Bladen 
Springs road, Choctaw County, Ala. 

Within the area, Spiratella augustana is most 
common at the stations on Little Stave Creek 
between the Ostrea johnsoni bed and a level a 
little below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact. It is 
present, however, up to the very contact, to the 
blocky siliceous clays of the contact specimen 
itself. 

Closely related though possibly not  specifi- 
cally identical individuals have been recovered 
from levels not more than 10 feet above the 
contact at U.S.G.S. stations 17917, 17923, and 
17924. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., a concentrically sculptured Nucula 
from the Lisbon formation of Alabama. F. Srrarns MacNett, U.S. Geological 


Survey. 


Strong concentric sculpture, although not 
unknown, is so unusual among the Nuculidae 
that the question arises as to whether the 
few species that possess it are closely re- 
lated and constitute a natural generic or 
subgeneric group. The ribs on different 
species are so dissimilar in cross section, 
however, that this close relationship seems 
doubtful. In some species the ribs are in- 
clined steps with the high, sharp edge on 
the dorsal side, as in Nucula austinclarki, 
here described. In other species the high 
sharp edge is on the ventral side. Still other 
species have more symmetrical ribs with 
either sharp cr rounded crests. 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


According to Schenck,’ the primary di- 
vision of the Nuculidae should be on the 
presence or absence of denticulations of the 
ventral margin. All the species with con- 
centric sculpture except one have denticula- 
tions on the ventral margins, and all these 
are referred to Nucula s.s. on the basis of 
shape, teeth, and ligament. Only one form, 
the. genus Nuculoma of Cossmann, with 
concentric sculpture and no marginal dentic- 
ulations is known. Nuculoma, which is 
known only from the Jurassic, appears from 
the figures to have concentric ribs that are 
gently inclined on the dorsal side and sharp 
on the ventral side, just the reverse of the 
condition in the species here described. 


* Scuenck, Hupert G., Bull. Mus. Royal Hist. 
Nat. Belgique 10 (20): 18. 1934. 


JANUARY 1951 


Three species of Nucula with concentric 
sculpture were listed by Schenck. They are: 
N. haesendonckii Nyst and Westendorp, 
from the Anversian (upper Miocene) of 
Holland, a species with [noceramus-like con- 
centric ribs, NV. compressa Philippi, from the 
Chattian (upper Oligocene) of Belgium, de- 
scribed as having ‘‘distinct concentric undu- 
lations,” and N. duchastelii Nyst, from the 
Rupelian (middle Oligocene) of Belgium, a 
species with strong but very irregular con- 
centric ridges that converge and diverge 
across the shell. 

In addition to these Oligocene and Mio- 
cene species, two other Miocene and a Re- 
cent species have been described. Nucula 
(Nucula) njalindungensis Martin, from the 
lower Miocene of Java and Borneo, like NV. 
duchasteli1, has concentric lines that freely 
converge and diverge. Nucula prunicola, 
Dall, from the middle Miocene of Maryland 
has concentric ribs that are highest and 
sharp at the dorsal edge and gently sloping 
on the ventral side. They are thus of the 
same type as those of the new species but 
are developed at the anterior end of the 
shell only. The chondrophore of NV. prunicola 
is also much narrower than that of the 
species here described. Nucula exigua Sow- 
erby is living from California to southern 
Mexico. It has concentric lirations that are 
more or less symmetrical and are highest 
along a central crest. 

From the Eocene three species with con- 
centric sculpture have been described. The 
new species is also of Eocene age. Two of 
these are from the Calcaire grossier of 
France, N. capillacea Deshayes and JN. 
minor Deshayes. The third was described 
from the London clay of England as N. 


MACNEIL: NUCULA AUSTINCLARKI 13 


regnorum Wrigley. All these species are 
small, the largest specimen of NV. regnorum 
measuring 8.0 mm, and both of Deshayes’s 
species being less than 5.0 mm in length. 

A description of the new Eocene species 
follows: 


Genus Nucula Lamarck, 1799 


Type: Arca nucleus Linnaeus. 

The species here described is characterized by 
its very unusual concentric sculpture. The shell is 
large for the genus, but on the basis of its shape, 
teeth, ligament, and marginal denticulations it 
appears to be a typical Nucula. 


Nucula austinclarki MacNeil, n. sp. 


Figs. 1, 2 


Shell large and medium inflated, subovate; 
anterior dorsal margin gently curved; anterior 
extremity blunt but straighter along the dorsal 
margin; lunular area subrostrate; posterior 
margin gently curved; posterior extremity sub- 
angulate; escutcheonal area truncate, with the 
posterior ridge curving gently in a direction 
opposite to thecurveof the posterior margin; outer 
surface sculptured by strong concentric ribs that 
are inclinded and low on the ventral side, but 
with a sharp, usually undercut edge on the dorsal 
side; most of the ribs continuous around the shell 
but an occasional one is partly covered or over- 
lapped by the next younger one; ribs with faint 
radial lines at some points; ventral margin with 
well developed denticulations; teeth on the an- 
terior side regular and nesting within each other, 
about 22 in number, posterior teeth less regular, 
not forming a uniformly chevroned series, about 
10 in number; interior smooth, muscle scars 
impressed, pallial line strong and entire. 


9 x14 


Fics. 1, 2.—Nucula austin clarki MacNeil, n. sp., Middle Mocene, Lisbon formation, Clarke County, 
Ala.; holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 560585): 1, Exterior; 2, interior. 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Holotype (a left valve) (U.S.N.M. no. 560585) 
measures: Height 22 mm, length 27 mm, diam- 
eter of single valve 7.8 mm. 

Type locality and only known occurrence: A 
gully in the west center of sec. 10, T. 9 N., R. 
4 B)., Clarke County, Ala. The gully lies on the 
south side of the county road. 

This species is closely related to Nucula mag- 
nifica Conrad, a species described from the Gos- 
port sand in the upper part of the Claiborne 
group of Alabama, and also present in the Lisbon 
formation of Alabama and the equivalent por- 
tion of the McBean formation of eastern Georgia 
and South Carolina in the middle part of the 
Claiborne group. In shape, size, and dentition 
the two species are nearly identical. Nucula 
magnifica has a smooth surface, but occasional 
specimens show a slight. tendency for the de- 


vou. 41, No. 1 


velopment of concentric markings similar to those 
of N. austinclarki at a point or two along the 
posterior ridge. 

Nucula austinclarki is from the Lisbon forma- 
tion, the middle part of the Claiborne group in 
Alabama. Its association with Ostrea sellaefor- 
mis indicates that it is from the middle or upper 
part of the Lisbon and not from the lowest part, 
which carries Ostrea lisbonensis, the apparent 
forerunner of O. sellaeformis. From the general 
field relations it appears to occur in the lower 
part of the range of Ostrea sellaeformis. Nucula 
magnifica 18 apparently a younger species than 
N. austinclarki, bemg known from the upper 
part of the range of Ostrea sellaeformis and from 
the Gosport sand, which is stratigraphically 
higher than the upper limit of the range of Ostrea 
sellaeformis. 


MALACOLOGY.—New stenothyrid gastropods from the Philippines (Rissoidae). 
R. Tucker Assort, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by H. A. Reh- 


der.) 


During a survey of fresh-water mollusks 
in 1945 on the Island of Leyte, Republic of 
the Philippines, ecological and morphologi- 
cal notes were made on living specimens of 
a species of Stenothyra Benson, 1856, which 
has subsequently proved to be undescribed. 
An undescribed subspecies from Mindoro 
Island of this polytypic species was found 
in the U. 8. National Museum. It was col- 
lected in the 1880’s by J. F. Quadras and 
bore the manuscript name of “‘philippinica 
Moellendorff.”” These two gastropods are 
named in honor of Austin H. Clark, retiring 
curator of echinoderms, United States Na- 
tional Museum, who has given me great 
encouragement and help. 


Stenothyra austini, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 3-7 


Description.—Shell small, about 3.0 mm in 
length, ovoid, relatively thick-shelled, compressed 
ventrally, with a small circular aperture, and with 
unevenly developed whorls. Spire blunt and some- 
what rounded. Nuclear whorls 13 in number, 
transparent. Postnuclear whorls 3 to 4 in num- 
ber, increasing irregularly in size (so that the 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


ventral face is flattened) until the last whorl, 
when they then decrease in size and form the 
relatively small, circular aperture. Periphery of 
early whorls well-rounded; last whorl moderately 
rounded. Suture finely and sharply impressed. 
Base of shell set at 45° to the axis of the shell, 
slightly convex, and thickened slightly in the 
area near the very small umbilicus. Aperture 
almost circular, with a slightly thickened con- 
tinuous peristome. Behind the lip, on the exterior 
of the body whorl, there is a slightly thickened, 
smooth varix. Axial sculpture absent. Spiral seulp- 
ture consists of 10 to 15 rows of microscopic pits 
on the upper two-thirds of the whorl. The pits 
may be round, squarish or oblong. Umbilicus 
reduced to a minute chink. Color of shell from 
yellowish tan to light brown. In living specimens, 
the shell is translucent and the pits appear as 
tiny bubbles embedded in the shell. Periostracum 
thin, light tan. In living specimens, it covers the 
small pits. It is often covered with a blackish 
film of organic detritus. Operculum almost cir- 
cular, chitinous, paucispiral, with the nucleus 
near the center. There are two raised, oblong 
lamellae of chitin reinforcing the surface of at- 
tachment. The anterior, inner edge is reinforced 
by a low, curved ridge (see Fig. 4). In adults, the 
operculum is often slightly larger than the aper- 
ture and incapable of being withdrawn into the 
shell. 


JANUARY 1951 ABBOTT: NEW STENOTHYRID GASTROPODS 15 


la 


1c 


att 


Figs. 1, 3-7.—Stenothyra austini austini: 1, Holotype shell (X10) (a, apertural view; 0, apical view; 
c, side view); 8, immature shell; 4, operculum (a, outer view; b, side view; c, inner view); 5, living ani- 
mal (a, lateral view; b, ventral view; c, dorsal view of head region); 6, male genitalia (verge); 7, radula 
(a, rachidian; b, lateral; c, inner marginal; d, outer marginal). 

Fig. 2.—Stenothyra austini clarkt, holotype shell (X10). 


16 JOURNAL OF THE 


Measurements of shell (mm) 


Length Width Aperture Whorls 
4.0 2.2 1.2 by 1.2 5.3 (holotype) 
4.0 21 123) by; 1-3 5.5 (paratypes) 
S365 21 1.0 by 1.1 5.0 (U.S.N.M. No. 603670) 
ae) 1.8 0.9 by 1.0 5.0 U.S.N.M. 
2.8 1.7 0.8 by 0.9 4.9 U.S.N.M. 
3 1.6 1.1 by 1.0 4.0 U.S.N.M. (young) 


Measurements of 97 adult paratypes from 
San Joaquin Estuary, eastern Leyte Island (U.S. 
N.M. no. 603671) were made to a tenth of a milli- 
meter and grouped in the following classes: 


Number of 

Length (mm) specimens 
2.6-2.9 13 
3.0-3.3 47 
3.4-3.7 35 
3.8-4.2 2 


Animal.—Small and capable of being com- 
pletely retracted into the shell. Foot relatively 
long, flat, with the anterior corners produced 
laterally, and with a transverse division across 
the sole about halfway back and at a point coin- 
ciding with the anterior edge of the operculum. 
Anterior edge of foot with a deep, narrow, trans- 
verse mucus slit which bears minute cilia. A 
bulbous pedal gland may be seen at the anterior 
end from a ventral view. At the posterior end 
and dorsal side of the foot there is a long, slender, 
fleshy rod. Proboscis large, swollen in the middle, 
with two circular color bars of black-brown near 
the anterior end. The posterior bar fades poste- 
riorly into anarea of dark reddish brown. Between 
the bars the flesh is bright, straw-yellow. Ten- 
tacles long, slender, flecked with bars of black 
and an occasional internal granular clump of 
yellow. Area about eye dark gray, posteriorly 
with a heavy concentration of embedded light- 
straw granules. Mantle light gray with heavy 
mottlings of black. Verge located on the midline 
of the ‘“‘back”’ of the animal. It is in the form of 
a coiled, single prong. The distal end bears a 
minute calcareous spine. The radula is taenio- 
glossate (see Fig. 7). 

The typical subspecies austini austini is char- 
acterized by the weak pits in the shell and the 
irregular spacing of the spiral rows of pits. 

Type locality —Bridge at Kaboynan, near the 
mouth of the north fork of the Guinarona River, 
Leyte Island, Republic of the Philippines. R. T. 
Abbott, legit, June 18, 1945. 

Types.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 603669. Para- 
types from the type locality, U.S.N.M. no. 
603670, and in the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. (the latter collected 
by M. 8. Ferguson). Paratypes also from San 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 41, No. 1 


Joaquin Estuary, eastern Leyte Island, R. T. 
Abbott, legit, June 29, 1945 (U.S.N.M. no. 
603671); Abuyog, eastern Leyte Island, R. T. 
Abbott, legit, August 14, 1945 (U.S.N.M. no. 
603672). 

Ecology and habits.—These mollusks are very 
active but shy creatures and were collected in 
three estuarine localities on Leyte Island. At the 
type locality they were found in 6-inch-deep, 
stagnant, brackish-water pools under the shade 
of floating palm fronds. The bottom was black 
ooze. Syncera and Neritina ziczac Linnaeus were 
found in the same neighborhood. At San Joaquin 
they were found under similar conditions where 
the water temperature was 81° F. and the pH 
7.6. Several species of Syncera, a Cerithidea, and 
Clenchiella victoriae Abbott, 1948, were collected 
with them. These Stenothyra are rapid crawlers. 
At the slightest disturbance they snap back into 
their shells with remarkable speed. 

Remarks.—The only other described species 
of Stenothyra in the Philippimes that possesses 
spiral rows of pits is S. quadrast Moellendorff, 
1895, which, however, is a much larger shell 
(7 mm in length), much thicker, with a very thick, 
flattened, and spirally lirated base, and with 
distinctly angled early whorls. S. austini ap- 
parently has a wide range throughout the Philip- 
pines but appears to be broken up into geographi- 
cal, insular races or subspecies. We have a single 
specimen from Bacoor Bay, Luzon (U.S.N.M. no. 
603674), but we hesitate to describe it as a new 
race until additional material is at hand. 


Stenothyra austini clarki, n. subsp. 
Fig. 2 


Shell similar to S. austini austint but differing 
in having deeper and larger pits and in having the 
spiral rows evenly spaced. In austini there are 
often three or four rows missing. The shells of our 
specimens of S. austini clarki are reddish brown 
in color, but this may be due to ecological condi- 
tions. Holotype: Length, 3.4; width, 1.9 mm. 

Type locality—The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
603673, is from Manglares, between Bacoy and 
Calapan, Mindoro Island, Republic of the Philip- 
pines. J. F. Quadras, legit, circa 1880. Two para- 
types from the same locality, U.S.N.M. no. 
303387, are probably from the same collector. 

The difference in shape between these sub- 
species, as seen in Figs. la and 2, is not specifi- 
cally significant. Some specimens of austini are 
similar to those of clarki in shape and size. 


JANUARY 1951 


MORRISON: NEW PULMONATE MOLLUSKS 12/ 


MALACOLOGY .—Two new Western Atlantic species of pulmonate mollusks of the 
genus Detracia and two old ones (family Ellobidae).1 J. P. E. Morrison, U.S. 


National Museum. 


The molluscan genus Detracia Gray, 1840, 
is represented in the Western Atlantic re- 
gion by four known species. They divide 
evenly: Two have been previously named; 
two are new. Two are continental; two are 
island species in their geographic distribu- 
tion. 

I wish to thank particularly Dr. H. A. 
Pilsbry and the authorities of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for the 
opportunity to borrow freely and study all 
specimens of this genus in the Academy 
collections. Without such study of many 
specimens additional to those in the United 
States National Museum collections, the 
zoogeographic picture here presented could 
not have been so complete. 


Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer), 1856 
Figs. 4, 7 


This manuscript name of Shuttleworth was 
first validly published in Pfeiffer’s Monograph 
auriculaceorum, p. 35, no. 35, 1856. W. G. Binney, 
the first subsequent American author to study the 
group, unfortunately selected the wrong speci- 
men for figuring in 1859 in his Terrestrial mol- 
lusks of the United States 4: pl. 75, fig. 30, from 
the mixture of species brought back from the 
Florida Keys by Bartlett for his father, Amos 
Binney. This figure represents the smallest 
(dwarf) form of Melampus bidentatus Say we 
know from the Florida Keys, instead of floridana. 

Because every succeeding illustrator of the 
group has copied this earliest figure of Binney, 
this species, the only one of the family confined 
to United States shores, has, up to the present 
time, almost a century later, not yet been fig- 
ured! The presence in the literature of an incor- 
rect figure makes the generic confusion that has 
so long surrounded this species easy to under- 
stand. 

D. floridana may be easily distinguished by its 
small size and, even in the youngest individuals 
seen (1.5 mm long), by the more regularly biconic 
shape. The aperture is markedly constricted be- 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


low (anteriorly) by the columellar lamella. There 
is a single palatal lamella, which is horizontal 
and approximately equal in height to the columel- 
lar. Between these two the palatal wall is well 
rounded and usually heavily calloused. The parie- 
tal wall is usually furnished with about 10 sub- 
equal, low lamellae, as in most species of the genus 
Melampus. These minute lamellae are sometimes 
present posteriorly along almost the full length 
of the parietal wall. In many young specimens 
their inner extensions are visible through the 
translucent penultimate whorl. 

The specimens figured (U.S.N.M. no. 473892) 
are part of a lot collected on August 26, 1938, 
from the salt marsh at Chesapeake Beach, Cal- 
vert County, Md. 

The adult (Fig. 7) has 10? whorls and measures: 
Height 7.9 mm; diameter 4.8 mm; aperture height 
5.8 mm; aperture diameter 2.2 mm. The younger 
individual (Fig. 4) has 11 whorls and measures: 
Height 6.6 mm; diameter 3.6 mm; aperture height 
4.5 mm; aperture diameter 1.9 mm. 

D. floridana is entirely continental in geo- 
graphic distribution. It is recorded only from 
Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, east and west 
Florida, and the Gulf coast of Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, and Louisiana. The present lack of local- 
ity records from the Carolinas and Georgia is 
probably due to the fact that no collecting has 
been done in the transitional estuarine (fresh- 
water—brackish-salt) marshes of those coastal 
areas. In the Chesapeake Bay area, where it is 
perhaps now best known, it seems to prefer 
or tolerate a lower degree of salinity in the salt- 
marsh habitats than does its neighbor and rela- 
tive Melampus bidentatus lineatus Say. Under 
estuarine conditions this species is sometimes 
astoundingly abundant. With an observed con- 
centration of more than one individual per square 
inch, it was estimated on June 28, 1950, that in 
just 1 square mile of the estuary marshes of the 
Pocomoke River (Accomack County, Va.) there 
were twice as many individuals of Detracta flort- 
dana as there are human beings in the entire 
world. In other words, more than 4 billion of these 
small snails inhabit this one particular square 
mile! 


2 Apex eroded. Number of whorls indistinct. 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Detracia clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 2, 6 


Shell large (for the genus), obovate, smoothish, 
of 10-12 whorls, with moderate spire somewhat 
variable in height but usually about one-third 
the height of the aperture. Body whorl tending 
to be subcylindrical, smoothly sculptured with 
minute growth lines only, except for a few in- 
cised spiral lines above the shoulder and near the 
base. Aperture sublinear, conspicuously ob- 
structed by two heavy, upturned (posteriorly 
dished) axial lamellae, which are continuous from 
the plane of the aperture to about three-fourths 
of a whorl within. The columellar, the most prom- 
inent of the two, usually extends more than half- 
way across the aperture to the parietal wall. The 
outer lip (parietal wall) bears a variable number 
(a few) of well-spaced lamellae essentially al- 
ternating with the axials basally (anteriorly). In 
addition, the aperture of adults shows a greater 
number of low parietal lamellae interpolated on 
an internal ridge or varix along the parietal wall, 
behind which ridge the parietal lamellae are 
much reduced in height and prominence. 

The holotype U.S.N.M. no. 594588 (Fig. 6), 
has 11 whorls and measures: Height 12.5 mm; 
diameter 6.7 mm; aperture height 9.8 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 3.2 mm. It and 14 paratypes, 
U.S.N.M. no. 36062, were collected at Key West, 
Fla., by Henry Hemphill previous to 1884. It is 
not absolutely certain that these specimens were 
taken on Key West, as the older custom was to 
give general localities only. They may have come 
from either Stock Island or Boca Chica Key 
nearby, where it seems evident the species is still 
living. The younger specimen (Fig. 2) (U.S.N.M. 
no. 594589) comes from Stock Island, Fla. It 
has 10 whorls and measures: Height 6.5 mm; 
diameter 4.0 mm; aperture height 4.7 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 2.3 mm. 

The geographic distribution as recorded for the 
532 specimens at hand includes the Bahamas (?), 
the Florida Keys, and Cuba, as follows: BAHAMAS: 
1 specimen (U.S.N.M. no. 594592) from Great 
Abaco Island, perhaps drifted to this locality. 
Fioripa: “Miami” (8. N. Rhoads, 1899); a key 
near Chokoloskee; Virginia Key (Biscayne Bay); 
Pumpkin Key (Card Sound) ; Middle Key (Barnes 
Sound); Tavenier Key and Key Largo; from 
Indian, Lower Matecumbe, Bahia Honda, New 
Found Harbor, Windley’s, Torch, Geiger’s, Sugar 
Loaf, Big Pine, and Boca Chica Keys; Stock 


vou. 41, No. lL 


Island; and. Key~ West. An old record of “St. 
Augustine” is doubtful, except as a possible 
drift specimen. Cusa: Recorded at present from 
only two widely separate localities: Punta Cajon, 
Pinar del Rio (U.S.N.M. no. 492571), and Cayo 
Perro, Cardenas Bay (U.S.N.M. no. 594590). 
In other words, Detracia clarki is at present known 
only from a restricted area in the Western At- 
lantic along the Straits of Florida. 

Of the size and general shape of Melampus 
bidentatus bidentatus Say, with which it occurs, 
and Pira monile Bruguiére, D. clarki is readily 
distinguished on apertural characteristics. The 
extra-heavy columellar lamella, higher than the 
palatal, and by far the most prominent of the 
aperture, reaching nearly to the parietal wall in 
some individuals, is turned upward within, to 
form a cup-shape structure whose rim approaches 
a parallel to the columellar axis. This extreme 
constriction of the basal part of the aperture by 
the columellar lamella will separate it from Mel- 
ampus bidentatus, while the absence of cuticular 
setae or the remaining scar-pits of the same on 
the spire will easily separate it from Pira monile. 
D. clarki is distinct from all others by the con- 
spicuously posteriorly dished or upeurved direc- 
tion of the columellar lamella. It is twice the size, 
when adult, of any other known member of the 
genus Detracia. | 

This species is named in honor of Austin H. 
Clark, retiring curator of echinoderms of the 
United States National Museum, in some small 
recognition of his outstanding faculty for spiring 
others in the solution of problems of the zooge- 
ography of invertebrate animals of all types from 
every corner of the world. 


Detracia bullaoides (Montagu), 1808 
Figs. 1, 5 


This the genotype species was first described 
from shells recovered from ballast discarded along 
the coast of England. For many years, however, 
it has been well known as a characteristic species 
of the West Indies. It is figured here to complete 
the picture of West Atlantic forms, so that future 
students will not have to search elsewhere for 
comparable illustrations. 

D. bullaoides is easily distinguished by the 
more elongate shape of most adults, as well as 
by the heavily buttressed palatal lamella. The 
few low parietal lamellae are present only on the 
basal (anterior) portion of the parietal or outer 


JANUARY 1951 


wall of the aperture. In most adult shells the 
aperture is posteriorly exceedingly narrow and 
linear. 

The adult specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 466289 
(Fig. 5), has 12 whorls and measures: Height 
9.5 mm; diameter 4.3 mm; aperture height 5.6 
mm; aperture diameter 2.2 mm. It is one of many 
specimens collected on the edge of the mangrove 
swamp on Shell Key, off St. Petersburg, Fla., 
April 24, 1936. The younger specimen (Fig. 1) 
has 10 whorls and measures: Height 6.2 mm; 
diameter 3.2 mm; aperture height 4.3 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 2.0 mm. It comes from the same 
lot. 

D. bullaoides is apparently primarily Greater 
Antillean in its geographic range. The United 
States National Museum collections include speci- 
mens from the Bermudas; from Fernandina to 
Key West and to Cedar Keys, Fla.; the Bahamas; 
Cuba; Jamaica; and Hispaniola. There are also 
records of this species in the collections of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 
from St. Croix, Virgin Islands; and Tampico, 
Mexico. 


MORRISON: NEW PULMONATE MOLLUSKS 19 


Detracia parana, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Shell small, obovate-biconic, smooth, of about 
10 whorls. Spire moderate, equal to about one- 
fourth the total length of the shell. Body whorl 
well rounded, smoothly sculptured with minute 
growth lines only, with the very low, rounded 
shoulder about midway of the shell height. Aper- 
ture moderately narrow, constricted by a prom- 
inent horizontal or downwardly (anteriorly) di- 
rected columellar lamella, which extends forward 
to be continuous with the base of the outer lip. 
The palatal wall is furnished with a single low 
horizontal lamella a little below the middle of the 
aperture. This is inconspicuous and in specimens 
seen extends only about one-fourth of the way to 
the parietal wall. The parietal wall is not fur- 
nished with lamellae but appears smooth. 

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594591 (Fig. 3), 
and three paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 32090, were 
collected from the Amazon River at Pard, Brazil, 
by J. B. Steere, previous to 1885, when they 
were catalogued at the United States National 


7 


Fires. 1, 5.—Detracia bullaoides (Montagu), young and adult, U.S.N M. no. 466289, from margin of 
mangroves on Shell Key, off St. Petersburg, Fla., April 24, 1986, J. P. H. Morrison. 


Fie. 2.—Detracia clarki, n. sp., young paratype, U.S.N.M. No. 594589, from Stock Island, Fla., P. 


Bartsch. 


> 


Fig. 3.—Detracia parana, n. sp., holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594591, from the Amazon River, Para, Brazil, 


J. B. Steere. 


Fias. 4, 7.—Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer), young and adult, U.S.N.M. no. 478892, around grass rocts 
in salt marsh at Chesapeake Beach, Md., August 26, 1938, J. P. I). Morrison. ’ 
Fic. 6.—Detracia clarki, n. sp., holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594588, Key West, Fla., H. Hemphill. 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Museum. The holotype has 10% whorls and 
measures: Height 6.8 mm; diameter 3.9 mm; 
aperture height 5.2 mm; aperture diameter 
2.0 mm. 

This new species is almost exactly like the 
North American continental species floridana 
in general appearance but differs considerably in 
the detail of lamination of the aperture. It lacks 
any marked callosity of the aperture above the 
columellar lamella. The columellar wall below 


3 Apex eroded. Number of whorls indistinct. 


voL. 41, No. 1 


(anterior to) the palatal lamella is rather flat, 
not markedly arched and calloused in this region 
as it is in floridana. Though the number of speci- 
mens of parana at hand is very small, the ob- 
served differences, together with the observed 
similarities, of a molluscan species purporting 
to come from an absolutely comparable estuarine 
habitat on South American West Atlantic shores 
lead me to advance Detracia parana as a species 
that has developed completely parallel to its close 
relative D. floridana of North America. 


MALACOLOGY .—A new species of glycymerid from the Philippines.t Davip Nicou, 


U.S. National Museum. 


This is a report on a new species of gly- 
cymerid collected by the U. S. Fish Com- 
mission steamer Albatross on the Philippine 
expedition of the years 1907 to 1910. It is 
my intention to give a complete account of 
the Glyeymeridae of this collection at a 
later date. 


Genus Axinactis Mérch, 1861 


Genotype (subsequent designation by Hertlein 
and Strong, 19438, p. 153): Pectunculus inaequalis 
G. B. Sowerby, 1833; Recent; Pacific coast of 
Panama and Nicaragua. 

Axinactis is the earliest generic name avail- 
able for the raised-ribbed species of glycymerids, 
which are nearly always confined to warm waters. 
This large group of glycymerids has had an in- 
dependent history as far back as Oligocene time 
and is certainly not closely related to Glycymeris 
glycymeris (Linné). 


Subgenus Melaxinaea Iredale, 1930 


Genotype (original designation): Melaxinaea 
labyrintha Iredale, 1930; Recent; Albany Passage, 
Queensland, 9-12 fathoms. 


Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki Nicol, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 


Description—Valves compressed, ratio of con- 
vexity to height about 0.50; dorsal margin long 
and straight giving shell an eared appearance, 
anterior, ventral, and posterior margins rounded; 
light reddish-brown spots on ribs, interior usually 
colorless, occasionally reddish-brown spots on 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


margins; beaks contiguous, orthogyrate; umbos 
flat and inconspicuous, located approximately 
at center of dorsal margin; ligament narrow and 
elongate, made up of four or five chevron-shaped 
parts; hinge teeth 23 to 28 in number, averaging 
25, arranged in a broad arch on a large flat hinge 
plate, teeth tending to disappear at center of 
hinge plate in mature specimens; crenulations on 
interior ventral border well-marked, usually 
pointed at end, though sometimes rounded, de- 
pressed at center, 15 to 21 in number, averaging 
17, not divided as is common in some species of 
Melaxinaea; adductor muscle scars approximately 
equal in size; radial ribs raised but not prominent, 
24 to 28 in number, averaging 26, ribs on central 
part of shell flat-topped, often with a shallow 
central groove, occasionally with two or three 
small ridges; at either end of shell ribs split into 
fine, slightly nodulose, crooked, riblets, occasion- 
ally a small radial rib added in interspaces, the 
latter almost as wide as ribs at ventral margin; 
ribs and interspaces crossed by fine, closely 
spaced, concentric striae which are more prom- 
inent on interspaces. 


Measurements in mm 


Convexity 

of both 

Specimen Leng Height valves 
Holotype 236879 34.6 34.0 18.1 
Paratype 293039 20.6 20.0 10.0 
Paratype 293039a 17.0 16.8 8.0 
Paratype 293039b 17.0 16.6 8.4 
Paratype 293039¢ 16.4 16.4 8.6 
Paratype 293039d 15.9 15.8 7.8 
Paratype 293039e 15.0 14.4 7.8 
Paratype 293039f 15.4 15.4 7.6 
Paratype 293039¢ 11.6 12.3 6.4 


Type specimens.—The holotype and paratypes 
are in the collection of the U. 8. National Mu- 
seum, Division of Mollusks: Holotype no. 236879, 
paratypes nos. 293039 and 296058. Thirty-nine 


JANUARY 1951 


specimens of the species were studied, but only 
the holotype is a mature shell. Many of the 
remainder, however, show the adult rib character 
and outline of the valves. 

Locality data—Station 5192, Jilantangan Is- 
land between Bantaydn Island and the north- 
west end of Cebu (E., N. 13°W., 3 miles 11°09’ 
15”N., 123°50’E.), 32 fathoms, green sand. Sta- 
tion 5277, Malavatuan Island, Lubang Islands 
northwest of Mindoro (N., 8. 56°E., 8 miles 
13°56/55”7 N., 120°13'45” E.), 80 fathoms, fine sand. 

Comparisons.—Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki 
most nearly resembles Pectunculus maskatensis 
Melvill, 1897, from Maskat, on the Gulf of Oman. 
The latter species has larger and more prom- 
inent ribs and greater length in comparison to its 
height. Pectunculus vitreus Lamarck has a more 
angular arrangement of teeth and beaded or 
granulose ribs. Pectwnculus nova-guineensis Angas 
has nodulose ribs and a shorter dorsal margin 
than Azinactis (Melazinaea) clarki. Melaxinaea 
labyrintha Iredale, the genotype of Melazxinaea, 
is from Albany Passage, Queensland. It has 
nodulose ribs that are more numerous, narrower, 
and more closely spaced on the adult shells. 
Melaxinaea litoralis Iredale from Townsville, 
Queensland, has a more rounded outline and has 
finer and more numerous radial ribs. Glycymeris 
planiuscula Chapman and Singleton from the 
Pliocene of Australia has more closely spaced 
rounded ribs. Glycymeris uzimiensis Cox from the 
Pliocene of Zanzibar has tuberculated ribs and a 
rounded or subtrigonal outline. 

Glycymeris dautzenbergi Prashad (1932, pp. 
65, 66) is a homonym of Pectunculus dautzen- 
bergz Gregorio (1892, p. 109). Glycymeris dautzen- 
bergi Prashad is herewith renamed Glycymeris 
prashadi. This species from the Arafura Sea has 
nodulose ribs on all of the shell and a shorter 
dorsal margin than Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarkv. 


NICOL: A NEW SPECIES OF GLYCYMERID 21 


REFERENCES 


Aneas, G. F. Descriptions of ten new species of 
Axinaea and Pectunculus in the collections of 
Mr. Sylvanus Hanley and the late T. L. Taylor. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London for 1879 (3): 417-420, 
pl. 35. 1879. 

CuapMaN, F., and Srncieton, F. A. A revision of 
the Caenozoic species of Glycymeris in southern 
Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria (n.s.) 37 
(pt. 1, art. 2): 18-60, 4 pls. 1925. 

Cox, L. R. Neogene and Quaternary Mollusca from 
the Zanzibar Protectorate. Extracted from the 
report on the Paleontology of the Zanzibar 
Protectorate, published by the Government 
of Zanzibar, pp. 13-180, pls. 3-19. 1927. 

GreGorio, ANTONIO DE Marcu. Sul genere Pec- 
tunculus precipuamente sulle specie viventi 
mediterranee e fossili nel Terziario superiore. 
Il Naturalista Siciliano 11 (5): 106-114. 
1892. 

Hertiein, Leo G., and Srrone, A. M. Mollusks 
from the west coast of Mexico and Central 
America, pt. 2. Zoologica 28 (3): 149-168, 1 pl. 
1943. 

TrEDALE, Tom. Queensland molluscan notes, no. 2. 
Mem. Queensland Mus. 10 (1): 73-88, pl. 9. 
1930. 

. Australian molluscan notes, no. 1. Rec. Aus- 

tralian Mus. 18 (4): 201-285, pls. 22-25. 1931. 

. Mollusca. In Sci. Rep. Great Barrier Reef 
Exped. 1928-29, 5 (no. 6, pt. 1): 209-425, 7 pls. 
British Museum, 1939. 

Lamarck, J. B. P. A. pre. Histoire naturelle des 
animaux sans vertébres... 6 (1): 343 pp. 1819. 

Metvitt, JAMES Cosmo. Descriptions of thirty- 
four species of marine Mollusca from the Ara- 
bian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Oman.Mem. 
and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc. 
41 (7): 25 pp., pls. 6, 7. 1897. 

Morcu, O. A. L. Bevtrdge zur Molluskenfauna Cen- 
tral-Amertka’s. Malakozool. Blatter 7: 170-218. 
1861. 

Prasuab, B. The Lamellibranchia of the Siboga Ex- 
pedition, Systematic Part II, Pelecypoda (ex- 
clusive of the Pectinidae). Siboga Monogr. 58¢: 
353 pp., 9 pls., 1 map. 1932. 


Figs. 1-3.—Azinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki, n. sp.: 1, Exterior view of holotype, left valve, U.S.N.M. 
no. 236879; 2, exterior view of paratype (young specimen), left valve, U.S.N.M. no. 298039a; 3, interior 
view of holotype, left valve, U.S.N.M. no. 236879. All figures natural size. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 1 


MALACOLOGY.—Two new Recent cone shells from the Western Atlantic (Conidae). 
Harautp A. Reaper and R. Tucker Assort, U.S. National Museum. 


Two species of the genus Conus were re- 
ceived by the United States National Mu- 
seum a few years ago from two dredging 
expeditions off southeastern United States. 
It appears that both species are undescribed, 
and we take pleasure in naming them for 
Austin H. Clark, retiring curator of echino- 
derms, United States National Museum. 
The first of these species, collected by the 
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service trawler 
Pelican in 1938, is strikingly different from 
any known Recent species in the Western 
Atlantic. The second, dredged off southern 
Florida by the Anton Dohrn, is somewhat 
like the well-known species Conus stimpsoni 
Dall. 


Conus clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-6 


Description —Shell 36 mm (13 inches) inlength, 
relatively heavy, broadly fusiform, strongly spi- 
rally sculptured, and chalk-white in color. Whorls 
12, the last whorl with a beaded carina at the 
shoulder, rounded at the periphery, and concave 
toward the base. Spire extended, pointed, con- 
cave, and slightly more than one-third of the 
entire length of the shell. Angle of spire about 70°. 
Nuclear whorls 13, glassy-smooth. Aperture ob- 
lique, long and narrow, with a deep, rounded 
sinus at the top. Outer lip sharp, thin, and weakly 
crenulated. The lip is sinuate with the middle 
portion being advanced, and the lower portion 
retracted enough to make the end of the siphonal 
canal considerably open. Spiral scultpure con- 
sists of 27 to 30 very strong, raised, squarish, 
and beaded cords. The topmost spiral cord bears 
the largest beads, which in previous whorls may 
be seen just above the impressed wavy sutural 
Ime. The surface of these beads is obliquely 
scratched by fine irregular lines. Top of the whorls 
slightly concave and with three to five unequal 
fine spiral threads. Axial sculpture consists of 
numerous fine, sharply raised, arched threads 
which cross the spiral threads on the tops of the 
whorls (anal fasciole). Color of shell chalk-white. 
In one paratype specimen there are very weak 
reddish squares of color between the beads on the 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received Oetober 
6, 1950. 


spiral cords. Periostracum thin, deciduous, light 
brown, and axially striate. 

Animal (Figs. 1-5) typical of the genus Conus, 
with a rather long siphonal extension of the man- 
tle, which is flecked with fine black striations. 
Side of foot suffused with gray along the lower 
border. Verge large, 7 mm in length, shaped like 
a meat cleaver, with a slender, curved point at 
the end. Verge has fused lamellations on its sides 
and base. Poison gland and radular sheath typical 
of the genus. About 30 harpoonlike teeth were 
found in the sheath. Tooth short with one small 
barb at the end, two on the side and one at the 
base (see Fig. 3). 


MEASUREMENTS (MM) 


Number of 
Length Width Whorls 
36.0 16.0 11.0 (holotype) 
36.0 16.0 11.0 (paratype male) 
34.4 15.5 10.8 


Types.—The holotype is U.S.N.M. no. 485740; 
one paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 488465; and another 
paratype is in the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology. 

Type locality —50 miles south-southwest of 
Marsh Island, Iberia County, La. (lat. 28° 
27.0'N.; long. 92° 14.0’W.). Dredged by the U. S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service trawler Pelican, station 
94-1, November 13, 1938, in 29 fathoms. 

Range.—Known only from the type locality. 

Remarks.—There is no living species described 
from the Western Atlantic that approximates 
C. clarki in the characters of heavy, raised, square, 
spiral cords, rounded periphery, attenuated basal 
portion (giving it a turniplike shape) and the 
prominent sharp axial, striae between the spiral 
cords. It is nearest in characters to the middle © 
Miocene fossil Conus (Leptoconus) multiliratus 
Bése, 1906, from Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, 
and its subspecies gaza Johnson and Pilsbry, 1911, 
from the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Panama, 
and Colombia. However, the Recent C. clarki is 
much more turnip-shaped, and its cords at the 
shoulder of the whorl are strongly beaded. 


Conus austini, n. sp. 
Fig. 7 


Description Shell 56 mm in length, heavy, 
spirally sculptured, and dull-white in color. 
Whorls 14, almost straight-sided, but very slightly 


JANUARY 1951 


concave toward the base. Shoulders of whorl 
slightly rounded in adults but carinate in younger 
specimens. Spire extended, pointed, slightly con- 
cave, and about one-quarter the entire length of 
the shell. Angle of spire about 80°. Nuclear whorls 
13, glassy-smooth. Next five whorls sculptured 
by a single, beaded carina, which in the succeed- 
ing whorls becomes smooth and located just above 
the suture. Aperture oblique, long and narrow, 
with a deep, rounded sinus at the top. Outer lip 
thin, sharp, and weakly crenulate. Spiral sculp- 
ture consisting of about 40 fairly well-developed, 
irregularly sized, rounded cords, which become 
more prominent basally. Three to five low, weak, 
spiral threads present on the top of the whorls, 
which are obliquely crossed by the arched growth 


REHDER AND ABBOTT: TWO NEW RECENT CONE SHELLS 23 


lines of the anal sinus. There is a tendency in 
some specimens to produce alternately small and 
large cords. Between the cords the axial sculpture 
consists of fine, distinct, raised striae. Periostra- 
cum moderately thick, when dry becoming axially 
striate and light brownish yellow in color. Ani- 
mal and operculum unknown. 


MEASUREMENTS (mM) 


Number of 
Length Width Whorls 
55.5 25.3 14 (holotype Tortugas) 
43.1 22.0 13 (paratype, Tortugas) 
51.0 25.5 13 (paratype, Antigua) 


Types.—The holotype is U.S.N.M. no. 603017; 
a paratype from the same dredging haul, U.S. 
N.M. no. 421721; a third paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 


Fras. 1-5.—Conus clarki, n. sp.: 1, Side view of male animal showing siphon (s?) and position of verge 


(ve) (X83); 2, side view of verge and vas deferens (X10); 3, single tooth (X50); 4, radular sac showing 
arrangement of unused tecth (X25); 5, semidiagrammatic drawing of anterior alimentary system and 
poison apparatus, bu, buccal mass; rs, radular sac; pg, poison gland (<5): 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


603018, was dredged by the Holis, Jr. by J. B. 
Henderson at the entrance of English Harbour, 
Antigua, Lesser Antilles, June 21, 1918. 

Type locality.—Southeast of Loggerhead Key, 
Dry Tortugas, Florida. Dredged in 40 to 46 
fathoms by W. L. Schmitt from the Anton 
Dohrn, June 21, 1932. 


Fic. 


Fie. 6.—Conus clarki, n. sp., holotype. 
7.—Conus austini, n. sp., holotype. (Both natural 
size.) 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Range-——From Dry Tortugas, Fla., south to 
Antigua Island, Lesser Antilles. 

Remarks.—This species is similar to C. stimp- 
sont Dall but differs in being larger, having raised 
spiral cords instead of incised grooves, having 
numerous fine but distinct axial striae between 
the cords, and lacking any color markings. A 
young specimen of C. austin displays a number 
of axial wrinkles in the middle of the body whorl, 
a variable character common to some Miocene 
fossil species. 

A similar species exists in the Gurabo forma- 
tion, Dominican Republic (Miocene). Specimens 
of this fossil are in the U. 8. National Museum, 
mixed in with lots labeled C. planiliratus Sowerby. 
It is apparently undescribed and differs from the 
Recent C. austini in having a slightly shorter 
spire, being half as high and rarely showing the 
tiny, angled keel on the shoulder of the whorls 
in the spire. Otherwise the shape and sculpture 
are extremely similar. C. stenostoma Sowerby, 
a Miocene fossil from the Domican Republic, is 
also very close but has a very low spire and a 
sharper shoulder. 


MALACOLOGY.—A new scaphopod mollusk, Cadulus austinclarki, from the Gulf 
of California.1 Witt1AM K. Emmrson, Research Fellow, Allan Hancock Foun- 
dation. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) 


A recent visit to the United States Na- 
tional Museum provided me an opportunity 
to examine the Scaphopoda contained in 
the vast collection of the division of mol- 
lusks. A previously unrecognized species of 
Cadulus from the Gulf of California is here 
described. 

I am indebted to Dr. Harald A. Rehder, 
curator of mollusks, for access to the facilities 
of the division, and to Frederick M. Bayer, 
assistant curator of marine invertebrates, 
for providing the camera-lucida drawing and 
the photograph. I take pleasure in dedi- 
cating this new species to Austin H. Clark, 
retiring curator of echinoderms in the United 
States National Museum. 

Family SIPHONODENTALIIDAE 

Genus Cadulus Philippi, 1844 
* Genotype (by monotypy): Dentaliwm ovulum 
Philippi, 1844, Recent; Mediterranean Sea. 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


Subgenus Platyschides Henderson, 1920 

Subgenotype (by original designation): Cadu- 
lus grandis Verrill, 1884; Recent, West Atlantic, 
north of Cape Hatteras. 

Shell small to relatively large, moderately 
curved, greatest swelling between the middle 
and oral aperture, posterior portion and aperture 
slightly flattened dorsoventrally; surface without 
sculpture, smooth and polished; apex possessing 
four rather broad, but shallow notches; white. 

This group differs from the subgenus Poly- 
schides in having the apical notches greatly re- 
duced. The slits vary in size from small indenta- 
tions, which appear as chipped-out portions of 
the margin, to minute features requiring con- 
siderable magnification in order to ascertain the 
structure. There are many Recent and Tertiary 
species. 

Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. sp. 

Figs. 1, 2 


Shell is minute, fairly solid, vitreous, semi- 
transparent, very slender, moderately curved, 


JANUARY 1951 


Fic. 1.—Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. 
sp.: Holotype, approximately X20. 


with the greatest diameter approximately two- 
fifths the distance from the oral aperture. The 
swelling is gradual and approaches uniformity, 
the equator not being conspicuously bulbular and 
the convex face forming a nearly uninterrupted 
arc. The outline of the concave side is very regu- 
lar except for the area of slight equatorial swell- 
ing. The oral (anterior) aperture is constricted, 
slightly compressed dorsoventrally, but nearly 
circular in section; apertural margin is slightly 
oblique. Apex is not much attenuated, relatively 
large, circular in outline, with a rather oblique 
margin. The apical characters are minute but 
well defined. The apex has four shallow notches 
separated by as many lobes of nearly equal size. 
The slits are subtriangular in shape, very shallow, 
with concave pair slightly deeper; the lobes are 
subconical, with the greatest height of the lobe 
composed of the inner shell layer, the outer mar- 
gin being beveled so as to provide a thin edge to 
the lobes (Fig. 2). The prominence of the lobes 
varies with individuals. In some specimens the 
vitreous shell is clouded by semiopaque circular 
zones producing alternate rings of more or less 
translucency. 


EMERSON: NEW SCAPHOPOD MOLLUSK 25 


Measurements.—Holotype, 4.4 mm long; diam- 
eter of apical orifice 0.35 mm; apertural diam- 
eter 0.55 mm. None of the paratypes measures 
more than 5 mm in length. 

Remarks.—The extremely small size, narrow- 
ness, and distinctive apical characters serve to 
distinguish this species from all other Eastern 
Pacific forms. No living species thus far described 
from the Eastern Pacific approaches this species. 
The most similar living species appears to be 
Cadulus (Platyschides) nitidus Henderson (1920) 
from Mayagiiez Harbor, Puerto Rico, in 25 
fathoms. Though this West Atlantic species has 
similar apical features, it is longer and more at- 
tenuated and possesses even less equatorial swell- 
ing than Cadulus austinclarki. Cadulus (Platy- 
schides) parvus Henderson (1920) from the Florida 
keys and off Barbados possesses nearly the same 
general outline but has a longer shell with more 
prominent apical features. Cadulus (Platyschides) 
amiantus Dall (1889) from off Bahia Honda, 
Cuba, is a larger more curved species with a 
greater equator. Cadulus (Platyschides) miamien- 
sis Henderson (1920) from off Fowey Light, 
Fla., in 209 fathoms, is a much larger, more 
curved species with entirely different apical char- 
acters. 

The National Museum records indicate that 
this new species is limited to the warm waters of 
the Panamic province. This is the first representa- 
tive of the subgenus Platyschides reported from 
the Eastern Pacific region. Intensified collecting 
in this area will undoubtedly reveal the presence 
of other species belonging to this group. 


Fra. 2.—Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. 
sp.: Holotype, apical features greatly magnified, 
a $-oblique view with the concave face on the 
left side: line represents 0.5 mm. 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Type locality—Santa Inez Bay, Baja Califor- 
nia (Gulf of California), west around Santa 
Inez Point, dredged in 6-12 feet of water in fine 
black sand; J. Hawkins, Jr., collector, March 30, 
1940. 

Range.—Santa Maria Bay, lat. 24°45’W, west 
coast of Baja California, Mexico (in Gulf of 
California: Santa Inez Bay, 27°N), to Panama 
City, lat. 8°50’N., and the Galdpagos Islands, 
1°N. 

Types.—Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 564527. Para- 
types: 39 in number, U.S.N.M. no. 602347. 

Records (latitudinal data approximate) .— 


West Coast of Baja California, Mexico 


Santa Maria Bay, 24° 45’ N., boat dredge, 
Bartsch (8). 
Cape San Lucas, Bartsch (1). 


East Coast of Baja California, Mexico 


Fraile Bay, 23° 23’ N., 10-30 feet, coarse, gray 
sand, Hawkins (5). 

Pichilinque Bay, 24° 13’N., Bartsch (18); 24° 
13’N., 20-30 feet, Hawkins (2). 

La Paz Bay, 24° 15’/N., all Hawkins: Between 
La Paz and El Mogote, 4-6 feet, on gray sandbar 
(2); north of east end of El Mogote, 1 fm., black 
sand (2); east point of El. Mogote, low tide on 
sandy beach (dead) (4); 4 mile southeast of Prieta 
Point, 2 fms., gray sand (1); 2% miles north of La 
Paz, 1-2 fms., on bar off Caruanito Rock, gray 
sand (1). 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


San Carlos Bay, 25° 18’N., 2-3 fms., fine black 
sand bottom, Hawkins (1). 

Conception Bay, west end of Coyote Bay, 26° 
53’N., 10-12 feet in cove, Hawkins (1). 

Santa Inez Bay, 27° N., Hawkins: 2 miles west 
of Santa Inez Point, 44 fms., 4 mile offshore in 
coarse gray sand (6); west around Santa Inez 
Point, 6-12 feet in cove, fine black sand (40), 


types. 


Republic of Panama 


Panama City, 8° 50’N., Zetek (5). 
Panama, Zetek (9) [tips broken]. 


Galdépagos Islands 


Near Galdpagos Islands, 1° 21’N., 89° 40’W., 
U.S.F.C. 2813, 40 fms. (25+) [tips broken]. 


REFERENCES 


Dati, W. H. Reports on results of dredging... 
by the U. S. Coast Survey steamer Blake ..., 
XXIX: Mollusca; pt. 2: Gastropodaand Sca- 
phopoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 18: 492 
pp., 40 pls. 1889. 

HENDERSON, JoHN B. A monograph of the East 
American scaphopod mollusks. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 111: 177 pp., 20 pls. 1920. 

Puteri, R. A. Enwmeratio molluscorum Siciliae 
2. 1844. 

VerRRILL, A. E. Catalogue of Mollusca recently 
added to the fauna of the New England coast and 
the adjacent parts of the Atlantic... Trans. 
Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci. 6: 139-294, 
5 pls.; 395-452, 3 pls. 1884. 


ZOOLOGY .—The brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic Expedition 1947— 
48.1 AusTIN H. Ciarx, U.S. National Museum. 


In a previous article (this JouRNAL, 40: 
330-337, 1950) the Crinoidea, Echinoidea, 
and Asteroidea of the Navy’s Antarctic Ex- 
pedition of 1947—48 were described. The col- 
lection includes 11 species of Ophiuroidea, 
none of them new although several are of 
much interest. 

The literature on the Antarctic echino- 
derms has recently been brought up to date 
by the magnificent series of Discovery reports 
based upon the work of the Discovery, Dis- 
covery II, and William Scoresby from 1925 to 
1935. In this series the report on the Hchin- 
oidea and Ophiuroidea by Th. Mortensen 
was published in 19386; on the Crinoidea 
(with bibliography) by D. Dilwyn John in 
1938; and on the Asteroidea (with bibliog- 
raphy) by Walter K. Fisher in 1940. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 
5, 1950. 


A detailed account of the faunal relations 
of the Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, and Echino- 
idea was published by René Koehler in 1912 
(Deuxiéme Expédition Antarctique Fran- 
gaise, 1908-1910, Echinodermes, pp. 186- 
253), and of the Crinoidea by the present 
author in 1915 (Die Crinoiden der Antark- 
tis). 

OPHIUROIDEA 
OPHIACANTHIDAE 
Ophicantha disjuncta (Koehler) 


Ophiodiplax disjuncta Koehler, British Antarctic 
Expedition 1907-9, 2, Biology, pt. 4: 48, pl. 6, 
figs. 9, 10, 11, pl. 7, fig. 13. 1911. 


Localities—Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 
150 fathoms; water temperature (surface) 29° F.; 
December 30, 1947 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 
E.7689). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 


JANUARY 1951 


ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (1 specimen, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7690). 

Notes——In the specimen from lat. 66° 35’ S., 
long. 90° 40’ E. the disk is 12 mm in diameter 
and the arms are 80 mm long. Jn the specimen 
from Marguerite Bay in 35 fathoms the disk is 
7 mm in diameter; the arms are 35 mm long. 


AMPHIURIDAE 
Amphiura algida Koehler 
Amphiura algida Koehler, British Antarctic Expe- 
dition 1907-9, 2, Biology, pt. 4: 46, pl. 7, figs. 14, 
15. 1911. 


Locality —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 
fathoms; January 29, 1948 (20 specimens, 
US.N.M. nos. E.7687, E.7688). 

Notes—In the largest specimens the disk is 
5 mm in diameter and the arms are 25 mm long. 
The radial shields are in contact from only at 
their outer ends to about their whole length, 
and are slightly broader than is shown in Koeh- 
ler’s figure. The arm spines at the base of the 
arms are 5, sometimes 6. 


Amphiura belgicae Koehler 


Amphiura belgicae Koehler, Resultats du voyage 
de S. Y. Belgica en 1897 1898-1899, Rapports 
Scientifique, Zoologie, Echinides et Ophiures: 
27, pl. 7, figs. 46-48. 1901. 


Localities—Off -Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1948 (3 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7683). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 
ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7682). 

Notes——One of the specimens from off Cape 
Royds has the disk 8 mm in diameter and the 
arms 40 mm long. One basal side arm plate 
has 5 arm spines; the others have 4 spines. The 
two specimens from Marguerite Bay have the 
disk 10 mm in diameter and the arms about 
mm long; the first four side arm plates beyond 
the disk have 5 arm spines. 


OPHIOLEPIDIDAE 
Ophiomastus tudwigi Koehler 
Figs. 1, 2 


Ophiomastus ludwigi Koehler, Resultats du voyage 
de 8S. Y. Belgica en 1897-1898-1899, Rapports 
Scientifique, Zoologie, Echinides et Ophiures: 
23, pl. 3, fig. 22, pl. 4, figs. 27, 28. 1901. 


Locality.—Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 speci- 
mens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7979). 


CLARK: BRITTLE-STARS OF NAVY ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 27 


Notes.—Although there is considerable dif- 
ference in some details, there can be no doubt 
that the larger specimen (Fig. 1) represents the 
same species as the single specimen described as 
Ophiomastus ludwigi, which was dredged near Peter 
Island (lat. 71° S., long. 88° 02’ W.) in 600 
meters. 

It is smaller than the type with the disk 3 
mm in diameter and the arms 7 mm long and, 
like the type, is immature without genital slits. 
The plates of the disk are somewhat irregular. 
On the first tentacle pore there are three scales 
on the interradial side, one on the radial; on the 
second pore there are two or three scales on the 
outer side, none on the inner; on the four or five 
following pores there is a single small scale at 
the base of the lower arm spine; there are no 
scales on the following pores. There are two arm 
spines, rather widely spaced. 

A smaller specimen (Fig. 2) with the disk 
1.7 mm. in diameter and the arms 5 mm long 
probably belongs to the same species. The 
primary radial plates are in contact, and portions 
of the radial shields are visible beyond them, 
as in Koehler’s specimen. As in the larger speci- 
men the disk is thick, but not domed. The first 
five upper arm plates, which are not in contact 
and decrease in size outwardly from the disk, are 
greatly swollen. The arms are more slender than 
those of the larger specimen with much elongated 
and narrow side arm plates and very small upper 
and under arm plates. There are two arm spines 
and no tentacle scales. 


Ophiura serrata Mortensen 
Figs. 3, 4 
Ophiura serrata Mortensen, Discovery Reports 12, 
Echinoidea and Ophiuroidea: 334, fig. 47, a-d, 
335. 1936. 


Locality.—Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 
specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7980). 

Notes—These specimens undoubtedly repre- 
sent the species called Ophiura serrata by Morten- 
sen, though they differ from that species as 
described in having fewer and more regular 
plates on the dorsal side of the disk and in the 
ventral interradial areas, in having only two 
well-separated arm spines, and in lacking any 
evidence of arm combs, all features presumably 
due to immaturity. 

The upper arm plates are high and roundedly 
carinate, separated from each other by a con- 
spicuous notch. In the smaller specimen they are 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


especially high at the arm bases where they are 
separated by a rather broad V-shaped notch. 
Distally they become gradually lower and 
smaller, more and more widely separated, and 
minute in the distal half of the arm. In lateral 
view the basal part of the arm appears swollen. 

In the larger specimen the disk is 5 mm in 
diameter and the arms are 13 mm long; in the 
smaller the disk is 3 mm in diameter and the 
arms are 10 mm long. 


Ophiura rouchi (Koehler) 


Ophioglypha roucht Koehler, Deuxiéme Expédition 
Antarctique Frangaise (1908-1910), Echinoder- 
mes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echinides): 107, pl. 
9, figs. 11, 12. 1912. 


Localities —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 
fathoms; January 29, 1948 (2 very small speci- 
mens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7707). 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 
ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (4 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7684). 

Notes.—The specimens from Marguerite Bay 
have the disk 5 mm. in diameter and the arms 
30 mm. long. 


Ophiurolepis gelida (Koehler) 


Ophioglypha gelida Koehler, Bull. Acad. Belgique, 
1900: 819; Resultats du voyage du 8. Y. Belgica 
en 1897—1898-1899, Rapports Scientifiques, Zo- 
ologie, Mchinides et Ophiures: 17, pl. 1, figs. 
6-8. 1901. 


Localities —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1948 (27 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7679, E.7680, E.7685). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7678). 


Fies. 1-4.—1, 2, Ophiomastus ludwigi: 1, Specimen with the disk 3 mm in diameter; 2, specimen with 


the disk 1.7 mm in diameter. 


3, 4, Ophiura serrata, aboral (3) and oral (4) surfaces. 


JANUARY 1951 


Notes.—The largest specimen from off Cape 
Royds has the disk 11 mm. in diameter and the 
arms 35 mm long. One specimen is 4-rayed. The 
largest specimen from Marguerite Bay has the 
disk 12 mm in diameter and the arms 35 mm long. 


Ophiurolepis martensi (Studer) 


Ophioglypha martensi Studer, Jahrb. wiss. Anst. 
Hamburg 2: p. 161, pl. 2, figs. 8, a, b. 1885. 


Localities—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1949 (11 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7705, E.7706). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 ( 5 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7704). 


Ophionotus victoriae Bell 


Ophionotus victoriae Bell, Report Coll. Nat. Hist. 
.. . Southern Cross: 216. 1902—Koehler, Deu- 
xiéme Expédition Antarctique Frangaise (1908- 
1910), Echinodermes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echi- 
nides): 114, pl. 10, figs. 2-4, 12, 13, pl. 11, fig. 8. 
1912. 


Localities —Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 
100 fathoms; water temperature 30° F.; January 
14, 1948 (10 specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7676) 

Peter Island; 30 fathoms; water temperature 
29.6° F.; February 15, 1948 (124 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E. 7658, E.7659, E.7660, E.7663, 
E.7664, E.7665, E.7666, E.7669, E.7670, E.7671, 
E.7672, E.7673, E.7674, E.7675). 

Peter Island; 60 fathoms; February 15, 1948 
(1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7668). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (22 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7661, E.7662). 

Marguerite Bay; 40 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 22, 1948 (8 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7667). 

Notes.—The specimens from lat. 65° 25’ §., 
long. 101° 13’ E. with the disk up to 27 mm in 
diameter have the disk less rounded and more 
pentagonal than the others; the arm spines are 
more slender and delicate and the mouth papillae 
less stout and more sharply pointed. The arms 
are longer and more slender, a specimen with 
the disk 23 mm in diameter having the arms 
120 mm long, and one with the disk 16 mm in 
diameter having the arms 80 mm long. 

The specimens from Peter Island in 30 fathoms 
have the disk from 4 to 25 mm in diameter. 

The specimen from Peter Island in 60 fathoms 
has the disk 20 mm in diameter. 

In the specimens from Marguerite Bay in 35 
fathoms the disk is up to 27 mm in diameter. 


CLARK: BRITTLE-STARS OF NAVY ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 29 


One of those from Marguerite Bay in 40 fathoms 
has the disk 28 mm in diameter. 


Ophiosteira senoqui Koehler 


Ophiosteira senoqui Koehler, Deuxiéme Expédition 
Antarctique Frangaise (1908-1910), Echino- 
dermes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echinides): 110, 
pl. 10, figs. 8-11. 1912. 


Locality.— Off the Knox Coast (lat. 66° 31’ S., 
long. 110° 26’ E.); 100 fathoms; January 19, 
1948 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7681). ‘B 

Note.—In this specimen the disk is 20 mm. in 
diameter and the arms are 120 mm long. 


Ophiocten megaloplax Koehler 


Ophiocten megaloplac Koehler, Bull. Acad. Bel- 
gique, 1900: 819; Resultats du voyage du 8. Y. 
Belgica en 1897-1898-1899, Zoologie, Echinides 
et Ophiures: 22, pl. 6, figs. 38, 39. 1901. 


Localities —Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 
150 fathoms; water temperature (surface) 29° 
F.; December 30, 1947 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. 
no. E.7692). 

Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 100 fathoms; 
water temperature 30° F.; January 14, 1948 
(2 specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7693). 

Off the Knox Coast (lat. 66° 31’ S., long. 110° 
26’ E.); 100 fathoms; January 19, 1948 (1 
specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7691). 

Notes—The specimen from lat. 66° 35’ S., 
long. 90° 40’ E. in 150 fathoms has the disk 5.5 
mm in diameter and the arms 25 mm long. 
The specimen from off the Knox Coast has the 
disk 8 mm. in diameter, with the circular central 
plate 3 mm in diameter, and the arms 35 mm 
long. 


ASSOCIATION OF SPECIES (CRINOIDEA, 
EcHINOIDEA, ASTEROIDEA, 
AND OPHIUROIDEA) 


Ross Island; caught along the beach near 
Cape Royds; January 29, 1948. Odontaster 
validus. 

Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 fathoms; 
January 29, 1948. Sterechinus  antarcticus, 
Odontaster validus, Amphiura algida, Amphiura 
belgicae, Ophiura rouchi, Ophiurolepis gelida, 
Ophiurolepis martenst, Amphiurid. 

Marguerite Bay; littoral; February 22, 1948. 
Labidiaster annulatus. Tide pools along shore on 
an island in Marguerite Bay; February 21, 
1948. Sterechinus antarcticus, Acondontaster elon- 
gatus, Lysasterias perrierit, Lysasterias joffret, 


30 ‘JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Adelasterias papillosa. Dredged at 35 fathoms; 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948. Pro- 
machocrinus kerguelensis, Sterechinus antarcticus, 
Leptychaster magnificus, Psilaster charcot:, Odon- 
taster meridionalis, Odontaster validus, Acodon- 
taster elongatus, Perknaster aurantiacus, Remaster 
gourdoni, Adelasterias papillosa, Ophiacantha 
disjuncta, Amphiura belgicae, Ophiomastus lud- 
wigi, Ophiura serrata, Ophiura rouchi, Ophiuro- 
lepis gelida, Ophiurolepis martenst, Ophionotus 
victoriae. Dredged at 40 fathoms; temperature 
30° F.; February 22, 1948. Promachocrinus 
kerguelensis, Sterechinus antarcticus, Odontaster 
validus, Cuenotaster involutus, Lysasterias perriert, 
Ophionotus victoriae. Dredged at 35-105 fath- 
oms; temperature 30.2° F.; February 19, 1948. 
Sterechinus antarcticus. Dredged at 115 fathoms 
temperature 30.2° F.; February 18, 1949. 
Sterechinus antarcticus, Ondontaster validus. 

Off Peter I Island; 30 fathoms; temperature 
29.6° F.; February 15, 1948. Psilaster charcott, 
Ophionotus victoriae. Same, 60 fathoms; February 
15, 1948. Ophionotus victoriae. ua 

Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 150 fathoms; 
December 30, 1947. Ophiacantha  disjuncta, 
Ophiocten megaloplax. 

Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 110 fathoms; 
temperature 30° F.; January 14, 1948. Floro- 
metra mawsoni, Ophionotus victoriae, Ophiocten 
megaloplax. 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Lat. 66° 31’ S., long. 110° 26’ E.; 100 fathoms; 
January 9, 1948. Promachocrinus kerguelensis, 
Ophiosteira senoqui, Ophiocten megaloplaz. 

It is interesting to compare the representation 
of the different classes of echinoderms (exclusive 
of the holothurians) in the Antarctic and the 
Arctic. The number of species in each region is as 
follows: 


Antarctic Arctic 
@rinoidea sire ei se coer a ecteniclias 24 3 
Mchinoldeateeses-caeh eo eee 30 2 
Asteroids 35 )5 che ciss, oe ene OE 114 23 
OyomeriClr, sccosacosascwescdsouepsdnc 50 12 


This enumeration does not include the fauna of 
the subantarctic islands or the Magellanic 
region, which support many additional species 
mostly related to Antarctic types. 

The strictly Antarctic species are almost 
wholly confined to the immediate vicinity of the 
Antarctic continent, while the majority of the 
Arctic species range for a greater or lesser distance 
southward in the north Atlantic, a few also in 
the north Pacific, and there is an isolated Arctic 
colony in the very cold water of the eastern part 
of the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan. A few Antarc- 
tic types range northward along the west coast 
of South and North America. Thus among the 
erinoids Ptilocrinus reaches British Columbia, 
Ilycrinus occurs off southeastern Alaska and 
westward to the Commander Islands, and 
Florometra extends northward to the Aleutian 
Islands, and south in the west Pacific to southern 
Japan. 


ZOOLOGY.—A new genus and species of notodelphyoid copepod from Japan.: Pau 


L. Inte, U. S. National Museum. 


In the course of assembling a series of 
notodelphyoid copepods for revisionary stud- 
ies, a fruitful source of material has been 
found in the yet unclassified collections of 
tunicates in the National Museum. The 
distinctive form here described has been 
selected for immediate treatment as a testi- 
monial to the retiring curator of echino- 
derms, United States National Museum, 
Austin Hobart Clark. It is considered an 
appropriate token of Mr. Clark’s significant 
connections with the United States Fish 
Commission steamer Albatross, the collecting 
vessel, and of his pioneer interest in the 
zoogeographic features of Japanese waters. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


The generic name here proposed is derived 
as an anagram of Mr. Clark’s given name. 


Family NoroDELPHYIDAE 


Subfamily NoropELPHYINAE Schellenberg, 1922 
Ustina, n. gen. 


The description below of the characters of the 
genotype and only species, Ustina clarkt, n. sp., 
provides the generic definition. 


Ustina clarki, n. sp. 


Specimens examined.—23 females, 18 males, 
all adult; from branchial cavities of numerous 
specimens of a small species of solitary ascidian. 
Albatross station 3698, off Manazuru Zaki, N.8°, 
W. 4.5 miles, inside Sagami Bay, Honshu Island, 
Japan, 153 fathoms, May 5, 1900. 


JANUARY 1951 


Types—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no. 
91090; allotypic male no. 91091; paratypes no. 
91092; all from the one known collection; scien- 
tific name of ascidian host not known. 

Description —FEMALE (Figs. 1, a-o): General 
aspect (Fig. 1, a) marked by the heavy chitiniza- 
tion of the body, with resultant characteristic 
rigidity of the major body units, and, in addition, 
an extremely notable compression of the meta- 
some. The heavy body cuticle is densely set with 
perforating conical pores which reach from wide 
bases to much diminished surface apertures. 
There seem to be no structures projecting beyond 
the apertures. The metasome is 5-segmented. 
The fused cephalothoracic portion includes the 
somites of all the mouthparts. The segment of 
the first swimming legs is free and much shorter 
than the other thoracic segments. The somite of 
the fourth legs almost equals in bulk the remain- 
der of the metasome by reason of its voluminous 
dorsal and posterior expansion to accomodate the 
characteristic incubatorium. The eggs are large 
and rather few in number. They form a compact 
mass which somewhat intrudes anteriorly into the 
third free somite. 

The urosome (Fig. 1, 6) is 5-segmented, some 
what elongate and cylindrical. The very short 
somite of the fifth legs is succeeded by three long, 
subequal segments and a very short, but highly 
characteristic, terminal segment. The anal somite 
bears a greatly enlarged ventral projection, pear- 
shaped in lateral view, wide and faintly bilobed 
from ventral aspect. This prominence is further 
marked by a very thick cuticle, densely set with 
the porelike structures described above. The 
caudal rami are widely spaced and project ventro- 
laterally from the sides of the segment. 

An axis through the body measures over-all 
2.2 mm. The separate lengths of the metasome 
and urosome, as measured along their major 
axes, are respectively 1.75 mm and 1.15 mm. 

The head (cephalothorax) is triangular in side 
view. The ventral margin of the notal shield is 
markedly indented subapically at the point of 
emergence of the antennular bases. The notum 
is produced ventrally and posteriorly over the 
bases of the antennules as a wide-based, roughly 
triangular rostrum, with rounded apex. 

The antennule (Fig. 1, c) is 8-segmented and 
densely setiferous. The base is more or less en- 
veloped by the ample rostrum. The typical pos- 
ture would appear to be that resulting from a 
sharp elbow bend of the third segment upon the 
second. The basal two segments are much the 


ILLG: NEW GENUS OF NOTODELPHYOID COPEPOD Ball 


widest, the six distal to the flexure taper grad- 
ually to the narrow tip which is about one-seventh. 
the basal width of the first sezment. The setation 
has not been depicted fully in the figure nor was 
an exact count attempted. All the segments are 
heavily chitinized and the setae are consistently 
long, slender and profusely plumose. 

The antenna (Fig. 1, d) is 3-segmented. The 
basal segment is much the longest, almost equal- 
ing the combined lengths of the distal segments. 
It bears distally a well-developed, elongate, 
plumose seta. The two terminal segments are 
subequal. Segment 2 bears a short slender seta 
subapically. Segment 3 has the usual stout, 
curved, tapered hook, articulated on the distal 
surface. Set in relation to this terminal jointing are 
5 setae. More proximally there is a trio of sub- 
equal setae which lie closely appressed to the 
surface. Still more proximal is a short slender 
seta. The basal segment bears a characteristic 
marginal row of very long, fine cilia. 

The masticatory plate of the mandible (Fig. 
1, e) is best presented by illustration. The mandib- 
ular palp (Fig. 1, f) shows some tendency to 
suppression of the endopodite. Some of the setae 
are stout, elongate and plumose, but several are 
reduced to relatively short and slender dimen- 
sions. The two segments are subequal. The basal 
segment bears 4 setae at the distal medial corner. 
The terminal segment bears 8 setae arranged 
across the truncate end and along the medial 
margin. The basipodite bears a relatively small 
subapical seta. The exopodite is a flattened, rigid 
plate with no remaining evidence of segmentation 
other than its 5 graduated, long, plumose setae. 

The maxillule (Fig. 1, g) is ornamented with 
relatively long, profusely plumose setae. The 
principal endite of the coxopodite bears a row of 
nine stout, short, tapered setae. The next distal 
medial process (a second endite?) is directly 
prolonged as a sharply tapering, flattened seta, 
profusely set with marginal ciliation. The 
basipodite bears medially three long, graduated 
setae, all plumose. The shortest is proximal and 
equals about two-thirds the length of the distally 
placed longest. The middle seta is intermediate 
in length. The endopodite bears four long, plu- 
mose setae, two borne terminally and two on the 
medial margin. The exopodite is slightly more ex- 
panded than the endopodite and has three setae 
widely spaced somewhat truneate 
margin. The epipodite is set with a long plumose 
seta, directed basally and with a more distally 
placed, very short, sharply tapered auxiliary seta. 


along its 


32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The maxilla (Fig. 1, h) is seemingly of primitive 
construction. It is 5-segmented; each segment 
bears one or more profusely ciliated, elongate 
setae. The basal segment bears a proximal trio 
of long setae, set more or less transversely to the 
main axis of the appendage on a well-developed 
protuberance. The next distal medial prominence 
bears a single long, plumose seta. The third 
prominence has a pair of equal, long, plumose 
setae. The terminal prominence of the segment 
bears two equal plumose setae; set at the base of 
these is a very short auxiliary seta. The second 
segment bears a pair of setae with an accompany- 
ing, basally placed, short auxiliary seta. The more 
proximal of the principal setae is equivalent in 
length to those of the basal segment. The distal 
seta is about two-thirds as long as the other, of 
about the same thickness; it is the homologue of 
the heavily developed claw that occurs in many 
closely related notodelphyoids. The third seg- 
ment bears one plumose seta; the fourth segment 
is distinctively set with one long, plumose seta 
and ‘a second, much shorter and slenderer seta. 
The terminal segment bears a distally arranged 
trio of plumose setae, one of which is equivalent 
in dimensions with the majority of the setae of the 
appendage, the remaining two shorter and 
slenderer by about one-third. All are plumose. 

The maxilliped (Fig. 1, 7) is a flat, unsegmented 
plate, preserving, however, indications of direct 
derivation from a 2-segmented condition. A distal 
pair of subequal, long, plumose setae is set on a 
well demarcated projection of the appendage. The 
medial margin bears two quartets of roughly 
equal, short, plumose setae. 

The swimming legs are distinctive as indicated 
in the figures and in the following tabulation of 
arrangement of setae and spines. Setae are desig- 
nated in Arabic numerals following designation of 
spines in Roman. The segments of each ramus are 
accounted for in order from the basal segment 
distally. First exopodite I-1; I-1; IV-3; first 
endopodite O-0; O-6. Second exopodite I-1; 1-1; 
V-4; second endopodite O-1; O-8. Third exopodite 
J-1; I-1; IV-4; third endopodite O-1; O-8. Fourth 
exopodite I-1; I-1; IV-3; fourth endopodite 
O-1; O-7. 

All the legs are heavily chitinized. None bears 
medial setae on the coxopodite. All bear a seta, 
variously developed, at the lateral edge of the 
basipodite. The endopodites are all 2-segmented. 
The lengths of the exopodites are graduated, the 
fourth being at least twice as long as the first. 
The elongation is mainly due to increased produc- 


VoL. 41, No. 1 


tion of the terminal segment of each exopodite. 

In the first legs (Fig. 1, 7) the rami are sub- 
equal. The lateral seta of the coxopodite is very 
long, stout and plumose. The basipodite bears 
medially a stout, curved, tapered spine which 
reaches to about the beginning of the distal third 
of the terminal segment of the endopodite. The 
setae of the terminal segment of the exopodite 
are short, exceeding the inner terminal spine by 
about half its length. The endopodite (Fig. 1, k) 
is highly distinctive; it is heavily chitinized. The 
elongate, terminal segment curves laterally and 
distally. The setae are all very long and profusely 
plumose. 

In the second legs (Fig. 1, 1) the endopodite 
reaches slightly beyond the second segment of the 
exopodite. The terminal exopodite segment is 
slightly shorter than the combined lengths of the 
two proximal segments. The third endopodite 
reaches just beyond the second segment of the 
third exopodite. The terminal segment of the 
latter exceeds the combined lengths of the proxi- 
mal two segments by about one-third. In the 
fourth legs (Fig. 1, m) the endopodite does not 
quite reach to the distal margin of the second 
segment of the exopodite. The length of the distal 
segment of the exopodite exceeds the proximal 
segments by half again their combined lengths. 
The setae of these swimming legs are in the main 
very long and plumose. Notably excepted are the 
setae of the third and fourth exopodites. These 
are short and slender; their consistency ap- 
proaches more or less that of the spines and they 
lack the usual plumose ciliation. 

The fifth legs (Fig. 1, n) are much reduced. In 
general aspect they are reminiscent of those in 
Botachus. The basal portion is more or less 
coalesced with the substance of the somite. A 
plumose lateral seta is borne on a slightly elevated 
basal prominence. The free segment is short and 
narrow. It bears a medial subapical spine and a 
relatively short terminal seta. The basal plate and 
free segment are heavily chitinized. The terminal 
seta is seemingly lacking in ornamentation. 

The caudal rami (Fig. 1, 0) are flat, heavily 
chitinized plates. The armature consists of a 
long, terminal, articulated claw, a more proximal, 
short, heavy, spinelike claw, and 3 short setae. 

Mate (Figs. 1, p, g): a more or less generalized 
notodelphyoid type, possibly tending somewhat 
to compression of the metasome. The integument 
is of normal aspect, lacking the marked sclerotiza- 
tion seen in the female. There are no cuticular 
pores detectable in the specimens seen. The meta- 


JANUARY 1951 ILLG: NEW GENUS OF NOTODELPHYOID COPEPOD 33 


Fre. 1.—Ustina clarki, n. sp. Female: a, Habit, lateral view; b, urosome, ventral view; ¢c, antennule; 
d, antenna; e, masticatory plate of mandible; f, mandibular palp; g, maxillule; kh, maxilla; ?, maxilliped; 
J, first leg; k, first endopodite; 1, second leg; m, fourth leg; n, fifth leg; 0, caudal ramus. Male: p, First 
leg; q, fourth leg. The scale, referring only to the figure of the habit of the female, represents 0.5 mm. 
To avoid complication of detail the plumose ciliation of most setae depicted has been omitted; this de- 
tail can be supplied from the description. 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


some is 5-segmented, comparable, except for the 
lack of the inflated incubatory structures, to the 
tagmosis in the female. The urosome is 6-seg- 
mented, modified in its thoracic component by the 
complicated male reproductive structures. The 
first urosomal somite is short and bears at its 
posterior margin fifth legs entirely comparable 
with those in the female. The second segment is 
twice as long and bears the usual sixth leg 
lappets, each terminating in a prolongation bear- 
ing two subequal setae. The succeeding three 
segments are subequal; the first of these is half 
again as long as the combined lengths of the first 
two segments. The terminal somite is comparable 
to that in the female, heavily chitinized, but 
lacking the elaborately developed cuticular struc- 
ture of the other sex. 

None of the cephalic or thoracic appendages, 
other than the sexually modified sixth legs ex- 
hibits specialization toward copulatory prehen- 
sion. The head appendages and maxillipeds are 
comparable to those in the female, although of 
smaller absolute dimensions and with somewhat 
less substantial structure. The swimming legs are 
not so modified as those in the female, retaining 
a more generalized aspect. The segmentation 
differs by the fact that the endopodites of the 
second, third and fourth legs preserve the basic 
3-segmented condition. The ornamentation differs 
from that in the female in the following particu- 
lars: second endopodite O-1; O-2; O-6. Third 
endopodite O-1; O-2; O-6. Fourth exopodite I-1; 
J-1; IV-4; fourth endopodite O-1; O-2; O-5. 

The first legs (Fig. 1, p) exhibit segmentation 
and ornamentation comparable to that in the 
female, but with over-all reduction in size and 
substance. The exopodites in the second through 
fourth legs exceed the endopodites by about the 
length of the terminal exopodite segments. These 
terminal segments in each case are shorter than 
the combined lengths of each two basal segments. 
The fourth leg (Fig. 1, g) is depicted to show the 
departure in configuration of segments and degree 
of ornamentation from the condition in the 
female. 

The length of the male is 1.1 mm. 

Remarks.—The copepod here described raises 
some difficulty when an attempt is made to place 
it in the scheme of classification of the notodel- 
phyoids. The existing generic definition most 
aptly accommodating its characteristics would be 
Notopterophoroides Schellenberg, 1922. However, 
when characters of the present species, those of 
Botachus, the species of Notopterophorus, Pachy- 


voL. 41, No. 1 


pygus and the two species of Notopterophoroides 
are compared, it would seem as though a set of 
variations around a basic ground plan is dis- 
cernible. Unifying characters would be: con- 
siderable similarity of antennule; general simi- 
larity of construction of mandibular palp; more 
or less graduated reduction in maxillular ormamen- 
tation, in structure of maxilla, and of maxilliped; 
individual but more or less consistent modifica- 
tions of swimming legs; reduction of fifth legs; 
and great similarity of construction of urosome 
with markedly consistent modification of the anal 
somite and caudal rami. It seems supportable 
that here among the notodelphyoids is still 
another series of related forms comparable to the 
groups varying around the Notodelphys mode and 
the Doropygus mode respectively. The present 
series exhibits characters (structure of antennule, 
for instance) which might be considered more 
primitive than those of Doropygus; others in- 
disputably are more highly derived. By compari- 
son with Notodelphys some of this group display 
a possibly more basie condition in having the 
somite of the first swimming legs a free segment. 
Since very probably there are yet undiscovered a 
considerable number of notodelphyoids which 
might furnish elucidation of the so far seemingly 
random distribution of the basic characters, it 
seems best at the present level of knowledge to 
indicate supraspecific identity as strongly as pos- 
sible. Accordingly separation is here recognized of 
all the aforementioned genera, and for the newly 
described form generic status is proposed. The 
species of Notopterophoroides seem to be rather 
arbitrarily united in the generic delimitation. 
Since Lang, 1949, by designation of N. armadillo 
Schellenberg as genotype has fixed the generic 
concept, the second species, NV. malacodermatus 
Schellenberg, seems only questionably appropri- 
ately referable to the genus. However, until the 
discovery of other species and clarification of the 
characters of the latter species, it seems prefer- 
able to refrain from attempting further generic 
separation. 


REFERENCES 


Lane, K. Copepoda ‘‘Notodelphyoida’’ from the 
Swedish west-coast with an outline on the sys- 
tematics of the copepods. Arkiv. for Zool. 40A 
(No. 14): 1-36, 1 pl., 17 figs. 1949. 

ScHELLENBERG, A. Neue Notodelphyiden des Ber- 
liner und Hamburger Museums mit einer Uber- 
sicht der ascidienbewohnenden Gattungen und 
Arten. I. Teil. Mitteil. Zool. Mus. Berlin 10 
(2): 217-274, 43 figs. 1922. 


JaNuARY 1951 CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS 


OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE By) 


ZOOLOGY .—The grass shrimps of the genus Hippolyte from the west coast of North 
America.! FENNER A. CHace, Jr., U. 8. National Museum. 


Two species of Hippolyte have been de- 
scribed from the Pacific coast of North 
America. One, Hippolyte californiensis, has 
been recorded from several localities be- 
tween Sitka, Alaska, and Santa Inez Bay, 
Baja California. The other, H. mexicana, 
was described by me from a series of muti- 
lated specimens from the latter locality. I 
am now convinced that H. mexicana repre- 
sents the previously undescribed male of H. 
californiensis. Examination of material in 
the collections of the U.S. National Museum 
indicates, however, that specimens from the 
northern part of the recorded range of H. 
califormiensis are very distinct from those 
from the southern part and that they be- 
long to a hitherto undescribed species. 

It is a pleasure to name this species after 
Austin H. Clark, retiring curator of echino- 
derms, U. 8S. National Museum, in recog- 
nition not only of his outstanding contribu- 
tions to our knowledge of many groups of 
animals but, especially, of his even broader 
influence on natural history through the 
assistance and encouragement he always 
has ready for biologists whose major goals 
still lie ahead. 


Hippolyte californiensis Holmes 
Figs. 1, a-e 
Hippolyte californiensis Holmes, 1895, p. 576, pl. 
20, figs. 21-26 (type locality, Bodega Bay, 
Calif.; cotypes, U.S.N.M. no. 18697) ; 1900, p. 193. 
—Rathbun, 1904, p. 56 (part).—Schmitt, 1921, p. 
48 (part), figs. 26, a-b (not fig. 26, c); 1924a, p. 
165 (part); 1924b, p. 387.—Chace, 1937, p. 126. 
Hippolyte mexicana Chace, 1937, p. 127, fig. 6 (type 
locality, Santa Inez Bay, Baja California, Mex- 
ico; holotype, no. 361076, Department of Trop- 
ical Research, New York Zoological Society) . 


Female.—Carapace not inflated. Four pairs of 
subequally spaced tufts of plumose setae on dor- 
sal part of carapace. Supraorbital spine reaching 
forward about as far as, or slightly beyond, hind 
margin of orbit. Antennal spine small, separated 
by a U-shaped notch from suborbital angle; the 
latter is blunt, but produced nearly or quite as 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


far as the antennal spine. Branchiostegal spine 
prominent and set far back from anterior margin 
of carapace, the tip falling short of the margin by 
at least half the length of the spine. 

Rostrum reaching not quite as far as, or a 
little beyond, end of antennal scale. Upper mar- 
gin straight, or a little concave, and armed with 
three or four teeth behind the tip. The tip is 
usually bifid, the upper tooth overreaching the 
lower. Lower margin set on a very narrow crest, 
slightly wider than the dorsal one, and armed 
with three to five teeth behind the tip. Supporting 
ridge on each lateral face of rostrum very sharp 
posteriorly, becoming blunt and finally indistinct 
on the anterior half. 

Third somite of abdomen produced in a very 
low, rounded cap over anterior portion of fourth 
somite. There is a tuft of plumose setae on each 
side of the cap near the margin, and another pair 
near the middle. Fifth somite unarmed. Sixth 
somite one and three-fourths times as long as 
fifth. Telson as long as sixth somite, flattened 
dorsoventrally, and armed with two pairs of 
lateral spines, the anterior pair inserted not 
quite half way from the base to the tip of the 
telson, and the posterior pair about midway be- 
tween the first pair and the tip; there are six or 
seven terminal spinules, the two submedian pairs 
about subequal in length and longer than the 
lateral pair. 

Cornea of eye wider than stalk and not reach- 
ing as far forward as tip of stylocerite. Stylocerite 
slender, sharp, and separated from main portion 
of segment by a narrow emargination. First 
antennular segment armed with an outer distal 
spine (and sometimes a smaller spine mediad 
to the first}. Second segment about twice as long 
as third. Inner flagellum made up of 18 to 22 
segments, the outer one of 9 to 11 segments 
the first 6 to 8 of which are somewhat inflated. 
Antenna with a lower spine on basis. Scale nar- 
row with subparallel sides, the inner angle of the 
blade strongly produced far beyond the outer 
spine. 

External maxillipeds rather stout and reaching 
somewhat beyond the tip of the spine on the 
basis of the antenna. The exopod is well de- 
veloped. First legs robust, unarmed; carpus dis- 
tinetly longer than palm. First joint of carpus 
of second legs a little over twice as long as second, 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


which is about three-fourths as long as third 
(one specimen examined has the second joint 
fully as long as the third); chela usually shorter 
than combined lengths of second and third joints 
of carpus. Third leg reaching forward nearly as 
far as end of antennular peduncle; merus with 
three to five lateral spies; carpus with one; 
propodus very slender, armed ventrally with 
about seven spines, increasing in size distally; 
dactyl long and slender, with three stout spines 
at tip and ten to thirteen on lower margin, in- 
creasing in size distally. Fourth leg extending 
forward about as far as end of antennal peduncle; 
merus armed with three lateral spines; carpus 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


with one; propodus and dactyl as in third leg. 
Fifth leg reaching forward to terminal third of 
basis of antenna; merus and carpus armed with 
one spine each; propodus and dactyl as in leg 3. 

Male.—Rostrum slender, reaching about to 
middle of second antennular segment, and 
straight or slightly downcurved throughout its 
length. Rostral margins subparallel, armed dor- 
sally with two to four, usually three, teeth, and 
ventrally with one to three, usually two, 
teeth near the tip. 

Sixth abdominal somite about one and three- 
fourths times as long as fifth, as in female, but 
telson is slightly longer than the sixth somite. 


\\ 
\ 
\' 
\ 
‘ 
t 
8 
s 


Fig. 1.—a, Hippolyte californiensis, frontal part of female from Dillon Beach, Calif., X8.3; b, dorsal 


view of right ‘antennule of female cotype, X8.3; c, second right leg of same specimen, x8. 3; d, third 
right leg of same specimen, X8.3; e, dactyl of same, X17.4; f, Hippolyte clarki, n. sp., frontal part of 
female holotype, X8.3; g. dorsal view of right antennule of "holotype, X8.3; h, ‘second | right leg of hol- 
otype, X8.3; 7, third right leg of holotype, 8.3; 7, dactyl of same, X17. 4: k, anterior view of second 
right pleopod of holotype, X17.4; 1, frontal part ‘of male paratype from Friday Harbor, Wash., X8.3; 
m, second right leg of same specimen, X8.3; n, third right leg of same specimen, X8.3; 0, dactyl of same, 
X17.4; p, anterior view of second right pleopod of same specimen, 17.4. 


JANUARY 1951 


Eyes reaching forward about to end of stylo- 
cerite. First antennular segment armed with row 
of three spines on distal margin. Outer antennular 
flagellum composed of about 16 segments, the 
proximal 10 of which are inflated. 

External maxillipeds reaching beyond tip of 
antennal scale. Legs proportionately longer than 
in female; third legs reach well beyond end of 
antennal scale. Propodi of last three pairs very 
broad and flat in distal half. Dactyls of these 
legs armed with about 16 spines on lower margin 
and two large apical spines, which are followed 
on the distal end of the upper margin by a row 
of five spines which become progressively smaller 
proximally. 

Color.—Green (Holmes); green with pink mar- 
gins (Hilton). 

Measurements.—Carapace lengths of smallest 
ovigerous female and largest female examined, 
4.9 and 6.8 mm, respectively. Carapace lengths 
of males, 2.7 to 3.8 mm. 

Range.—West coast of North America from 
Bodega Bay, Calif., to the Gulf of California. 

Material examined.—Bodega Bay, Calif.; from 
University of California; 2 females (1 ovigerous), 
cotypes (U.S.N.M. no. 18697). 

Dillon Beach, Marin County, Calif. (tide flats 
in eel-grass area); June 8, 1941; G. M. Scheibner; 
1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 89716). 

Mugu Bay, Ventura County, Calif.; May 31, 
1923; E. P. Chace; 5 females (3 ovigerous) 
(U.S.N.M. no. 89710). 

Balboa, Calif. (in eel grass); December 26, 
1917; W. A. Hilton; from Pomona College; 2 
females (1 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 50659). 

San Diego, Calif.; March 9, 1898; Albatross; 
5 females (2 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 23403). 

Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico; Novem- 
ber 28, 1936; S. A. Glassell; 1 female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 89678). 

Off Cape San Lazaro, Baja California, Mexico 
(in kelp); March 28, 1936; Zaca Expedition; 1 
specimen (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. no. 361072). 

Santa Inez Bay, Baja California, Mexico (in 
stomach of American eared grebe); April 9, 1936; 
Zaca Expedition; 27 specimens (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. 
nos. 361073, 361077). Same (in stomach of Amer- 
ican eared grebe); April 11, 1936; 105 specimens 
(D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. nos. 361074, 361078, and 
M.C.Z. no. 9501). Same; 1 fathom; April 15, 
1936; 1 male (holotype of H. mexicana, D.T.R., 
N.Y.ZS. no. 361076). Same; 3 fathoms; April 15, 
1936; 1 female (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. no. 361075). 


CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE 37 


Hippolyte clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, =D 


Hippolyte californiensis Rathbun, 1904, p. 56 
(part).—Schmitt, 1921, p. 48 (part), fig. 26, ¢; 
1924a, p. 165 (part). Not H. californiensis 
Holmes, 1895. 


Female.—Carapace not inflated. A pair of 
tufts of plumose setae on cardiac region and 
another on anterior gastric region. Supraorbital 
spine not large, reaching forward slightly be- 
yond hind margin of orbit. Antennal spine small, 
separated by a U-shaped notch from suborbital 
angle; the latter is blunt, but produced about as 
far as the antennal spine. Branchiostegal spine 
prominent and set well back from anterior mar- 
gin of carapace, the tip falling short of the margin 
by nearly half the length of the spine. 

Rostrum extending well beyond end of an- 
tennal scale. Upper margin concave in the prox- 
imal third and straight and ascending distally, 
or concave throughout, and usually armed with 
two teeth above the eye; occasional specimens 
are found with one or three teeth on the dorsal 
margin behind the tip. The tip is usually trifid, 
a small tooth being placed on each margin just 
back of the apex; occasionally either the dorsal 
or ventral subapical tooth may be absent (one 
specimen examined has two subapical teeth on 
the upper margin, causing the tip of the rostrum 
to appear quadridentate). Lower margin with a 
narrow crest, deepest at about the end of the 
proximal third, and armed with one to five teeth. 
Supporting ridge on each lateral face of rostrum 
blunt, not sharply carinate, although prominent 
proximally. 

Abdomen with a pair of tufts of plumose setae 
on posterior parts of first and second somites and 
two pairs of such tufts on third. Third somite 
produced in a low, blunt cap over anterior part 
of fourth somite. Fifth somite unarmed. Sixth 
somite nearly twice as long as fifth. Telson slightly 
shorter than sixth somite, flattened dorsoven- 
trally, and armed with two pairs of lateral spines, 
the anterior spine inserted at a point not quite 
halfway from the base to the tip of the telson, 
and the posterior one about midway between 
the first pair and the tip; there are from six to 
eight terminal spines, of which the submedian 
pair is the longest. 

Cornea of eye wider than stalk, forming a 
rather bulbous tip to the stalk, and reaching for- 
ward about to the end of the stylocerite. Stylo- 
cerite sharp, separated from first segment of 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


antennular peduncle by a narrow emargination. 
First antennular segment unarmed distally. Sec- 
ond and third segments slender, the second seg- 
ment fully twice as long as the third. Inner flagel- 
lum made up of 16 to 22 segments, the outer one 
of 8 to 11, of which the first is usually very long 
and all but the last three or four moderately in- 
flated. Antenna with a lower spine on basis. 
Scale narrow with subparallel sides, the imner 
angle of the blade angular and produced far be- 
yond the level of the outer spine. 

External maxillipeds rather slender, reaching 
nearly as far as end of antennal peduncle. There 
is a fairly well developed exopod. First legs ro- 
bust, unarmed; carpus distinctly longer than 
palm. First jomt of carpus of second legs nearly 
three times as long as second, which is slightly 
shorter than the third; chela a little shorter than 
the combined lengths of the second and third 
joints of the carpus. Third leg reaching forward 
about to end of antennal scale; merus with two 
to five lateral spines; carpus with one; propodus 
slender with subparallel sides and armed ventrally 
with five to seven pairs of spinules increasing in 
length distally, the inner spine of each pair being 
much shorter than the outer; dactyl broad and 
short, armed with six to eight ventral spines and 
a double row of eight longer ones crowded onto 
the distal half of the upper margin. Fourth leg 
extending forward nearly to end of second seg- 
ment of antennular peduncle; merus armed with 
up to five lateral spines; carpus with one; pro- 
podus and dacty] as in third leg. Fifth leg reach- 
ing forward about to end of first antennular seg- 
ment; merus armed with up to four lateral spines; 
carpus with one; propodus and dacty] as in third 
leg. 

Male.—Rostrum slender, reaching about to 
end of antennular peduncles, and somewhat up- 
curved distally. Rostral margins subparallel. Ros- 
tral armature roughly as in females (one male 
examined has no ventral tooth); the tip is often 
more obscurely trifid than in the female, because 
either the dorsal or ventral subapical tooth may 
be placed farther from the tip. 

Third segment of abdomen lower than in the 
female, the cap over the proximal portion of the 
fourth somite less pronounced. 

Eyes reaching forward well beyond end of 
stylocerite. Outer antennular flagellum composed 
of 8 to 16 segments, all but the terminal 3 to 5 


voL. 41, No. 1 


of which are somewhat more noticeably inflated 
than in the female. 

External maxillipeds reaching well beyond end 
of antennal peduncle. All of the legs are longer 
than in the female; third legs overreach antennal 
scale by length of dactyl and most of propodus. 
Propodi of last three pairs very broad and flat in 
distal half, the inflated portion being armed with 
seven pairs of large spines. Dactyls of these legs 
elongate, ending in a strong spine, with a row of 
about 14 spines on lower margin and five or six 
pairs of close-set spines on distal third of upper 
margin. 

There is but one appendix on the endopod of 
the second pleopods, but that is strongly setose, 
unlike the stylambys in the female. 

Age variation.—In small specimens the rostrum 
is Shorter, reaching just to the tip of the antennal 
scales in females, and the cornea is no wider than 
the eyestalk. As in other species of the genus, the 
younger the specimen, the fewer are the seg- 
ments in the antennular flagella. 

Measurements.—Carapace lengths of smallest 
ovigerous female and largest female examined 
3.0 and 6.0 mm, respectively. Carapace lengths 
of males 1.7 to 3.2 mm. 

Range.—West coast of North America from 
Sitka, Alaska, to Puget Sound. A lot of 47 speci- 
mens collected by the Anton Dohrn is labeled 
“Southern California,” but this locality seems 
doubtful. 

Material examined.—Sitka, Alaska; 10 fath- 
oms; June 15, 1899; station 1; Harriman Ex- 
pedition, W. E. Ritter; 1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 
25846). 

Barclay Sound, British Columbia; September 
27, 1888; Albatross; 1 ovigerous female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 28330). 

Nanaimo, British Columbia; C. H. O’Don- 
oghue; 2 males, 1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 54720). 

Friday Harbor, Wash.; in eel grass; August 5, 
1928; K. L. Hobbs; 1 ovigerous female holotype 
(U.S.N.M. no. 91089); 18 males, 13 females (7 
ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 63089). 

Quarantine Rock, Port Townsend, Wash.; June 
27, 1903; Albatross; 2 males, 1 ovigerous female 
(U.S.N.M. no. 31866). 

Puget Sound; 1895; T. Kincaid; 7 ovigerous 
females (U.S.N.M. no. 25835). 

“Southern California’; Anton Dohrn; from 
Venice Marine Biological Station; 1 male, 46 
females (28 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 50428). 


January 1951 


LITERATURE CITED 


CuacE, FENNER ALBERT, JR. 
VII. Caridean decapod 


Crocker Expedition. 


The Templeton 


Crustacea from the Gulf of California and the 
west coast of Lower California. Zoologica 22 
(pt. 2): 109-138, 9 figs. 1937. 

Homes, Samurt Jackson. Notes on west Amert- 
can Crustacea. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 4: 
563-588, pls. 20-21. 1895. 

Ratusun, Mary JANE. Decapod crustaceans of the 
northwest coast of North America. Harriman 


CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE 


39 


Alaska Exped. 10: 1-190, 95 figs., pls. 1-10. 


1904. 


Scumitr, Watpo LaSaunur. The marine decapod 
Crustacea of California. Univ. California Publ. 
Zool. 23: 1-470, 165 figs., pls. 1-50. 1921. 

—. The Macrura and Anomura collected by the 
Williams Galapagos Expedition, 1923. Zoologica 
5 (15): 161-171, 3 figs. 1924. 

———. Expedition of the California Academy of 
Sciences to the Gulf of California in 1921. 
Crustacea (Macrura and Anomura). Proc. Cali- 
fornia Acad. Sei. 13 (24): 381-388. 1924. 


TaBLE 1— DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE WESTERN Nortu AMERICAN SPECIES OF HIPPOLYTE 


Hippolyte californiensis 


Hippolyte clarki 


Female 


Male 


Female 


Male 


Rostrum: 

Reaching not quite as far as, 
or a little beyond, end of 
antennal scale. 

Nearly horizontal or faintly 
upcurved. 

Armed with 3-4 dorsal and 3-5 
ventral teeth in back of ter- 
minal set, tip usually bifid. 


Lateral supporting ridge 
sharp above eye, becoming 
blunt distally. 

ABDOMEN: 
Cap on third somite very low. 


Sixth somite about 1{ times 
as long as fifth. 
Eye: 
Not reaching forward as far 
as tip of stylocerite. 


ANTENNULAR PEDUNCLE: 

First segment armed with 1-2 

outer distal spines. 
SECOND LEG: 

First joint of carpus little 
more than twice as long as 
second. 

THIRD LEG: 

Reaching forward nearly as 
far as end of antennular pe- 
duncle. 

Dactyl slender, nearly half 
as long as propodus, and 
armed with 10-13 ventral 
and 3 distal spines. 


Falling short of end of second 
segment of antennular pe- 
duncle. 

Horizontal or slightly down- 
curved. 

Armed with 2-4 dorsal and 1-3 
ventral teeth in back of ter- 
minal set, tip usually bifid. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Reaching forward about to 
tip of stylocerite. 


First segment armed with 3 
outer distal spines. 


First joint of carpus barely 
twice as long as second. 


Reaching forward well be- 
yond end of antennal scale. 


Dactyl moderately slender, 
about half as long as pro- 
podus, and. armed with 
about 16 ventral and 7 dis- 
tal spines extending onto 
dorsal margin. 


Reaching well beyond end of 
antennal scale in adults. 


Distinctly upeurved or ascend- 
ing. 

Armed with 1-3 (usually 2) 
teeth above eye and 1-5 ven- 
tral teeth in back of terminal 
set; tip usually trifid. 

Lateral supporting ridge blunt 
throughout its length. 


Cap on third somite slightly 
higher and more prominent. 

Sixth somite nearly twice as 
long as fifth. 


Reaching forward about to tip 
of stylocerite. 


First segment unarmed dis- 
tally. 


First joint of carpus nearly 
three times as long as second. 


Reaching forward about to end 
of antennal scale. 


Dactyl very stout, less than a 
third as long as propodus, 
and armed with 6-8 ventral 
and 8 — 9 distal spines ex- 
tending nearly to midpoint 
of dorsal margin. 


Reaching about to end of an- 
tennular peduncle. 


Slightly upcurved distally. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Reaching forward nearly to 
end of first antennular seg- 
ment. 


Same. 


Same. 


Overreaching antennal scale by 
length of dactyl and most of 
propodus. 

Dactyl slender, less than half 
as long as propodus, and 
armed with about 14 ventral 
and 5 — 6 distal spines ex- 
tending a short distance on 
dorsal margin. 


40 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


ZOOLOGY —Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily Calyptrophorinae (Coelen- 


terata: Octocorallia).1 FREDERICK M. 


The vast collections of marine animals 
obtained by the United States Fish Com- 
mission steamer Albatross are still yielding 
new species, two of which are described 
below. Among the octocorals this is not 
surprising for a considerable part of the 
collection has not yet been studied. The 
first species herein described, taken by the 
Albatross during its Hawaiian cruise (1902), 
was erroneously included with a previously 
described species in the original report on 
the Hawaiian Alcyonaria (Nutting, 1908); 
the other is from the incomparable collec- 
tion assembled during the Philippine cruise 
of the Albatross (1906-1910). No complete 
report upon the collections of the latter 
expedition has yet been made. 

It is a great pleasure indeed to dedicate 
these two species to Austin H. Clark, retiring 
curator of echinoderms, U. 8S. National 
Museum, and his charming wife, Leila 
Forbes Clark, librarian of the Smithsonian 
Institution. 


Genus Calyptrophora Gray 
Calyptrophora J. E. Gray, 1866, p. 25. 


Diagnosis—Primnoids with branching dichoto- 
mous, in one plane or bushy; or lyrate, in one or 
two parallel planes; or partly in whorls, partly 
dichotomous. Zooids arranged in whorls, with 
their mouths directed upward or downward; body 
scales reduced to two pairs of large, curved plates 
which are either fused to form two solid rings, or 
are separate; adaxial buccal (marginal) scales 
present or absent;;no more than one pair of in- 
frabasal scales between the basal body pair and 
the rind scales. The operculum is well developed, 
consisting of eight large scales. The spicules of the 
stem rind are more or less elongate, flattened 
scales or plates, in one layer. 

Genotype.—Calyptrophora japonica Gray (by 
monotypy). 


Calyptrophora clarki, n. sp. Fig. 1 


Calyptrophora japonica Gray, Nutting, 1908, p. 578 
(part). 
Not Calyptrophora japonica Gray, 1866, p. 25, fig. 1. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 6, 
1950. 


Bayer, U.S. National Museum. 


Diagnosis—Branching dichotomous, in one 
plane. Zooids facing apically; both pairs of body 
scales fused to form solid rings; basal ring with a 
pair of long, slender, finely serrate spines; buccal 
ring with two broad, bladelike, finely serrate 
processes, which are occasionally bifid or trifid, 
sometimes completely divided to form four or six 
separate processes. A pair of well-defined infra- 
basal scales is present. 

Description —The colony is branched dichoto- 
mously, in one plane; the axis is longitudinally 
grooved and has a golden luster. The zooids 
(Fig. 1, D), which are 2.25-2.50 mm long including 
the buccal spines (measured parallel to the 
branch), occur in whorls of four or five (Fig. 1, A), 
and face upward; in 3 em of branch length there 
are from 12 to 14 whorls. The zooid body is 
surrounded by two pairs of large sclerites fused 
to form rings. The basal ring (Fig. 1, #) bears on 
its free edge a pair of long, slender, finely serrated 
spines; the buccal ring (Fig. 1, F) has two broad, 
bladelike processes which are sometimes divided 
more or less completely into two or three points 
or separate spines. A pair or narrow, curved infra- 
basals connects the basal ring with the stem 
scales. Adaxial buccal (marginal) scales are 
absent. The operculum is high and projects 
prominently from the buccal ring. The abaxial 
operculars are the largest, roughly triangular in 
shape and with a moderately strong inner keel; 
the adaxials are about half as large and more 
nearly perfect triangles; the outer lateral and 
inner lateral operculars are intermediate in size 
and more or less asymmetrical in outline due to the 
broadly rounded inner margin which overlaps the 
edge of the adaxially adjacent scale. The apical 
margins of the operculars are usually serrate, and 
in some zooids are divided into several lobes 
or low points (Figs. 1, B, C). The spicules of the 
stem rind are elongate scales without external 
ridges. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 25370. 

Locality —Hawaiian Islands: Ukula Point, 
Kauai Island, bearing north 65° 30’, west 7.4 
miles, 508-557 fathoms, gray sand and Foramini- 
fera, bottom temperature 40° F., June 17, 1902 
(Albatross station 4007). 

Paratype.—U.S8.N.M. 
Islands. 

Remarks.—In habit, Calyptrophora clarki is 


no. 43139; Hawaiian 


JANUARY 1951 


readily distinguishable from C. japonica Gray 
by its regularly dichotomous instead of lyrate 
branching. Most zooids of C. clarki are at once 
separable from those of C. japonica by the two 
broad processes of the buccal ring; there is, how- 
ever, much variation among individuals, even of 
the same colony, in the character of the buccal 
spines, and though there are ordinarily but two 
broad processes, there may occasionally be four, 
and sometimes even six. None of the specimens of 
C. japonica I have examined show six buccal 
spines. Both the buccal and the basal spines of C. 
clarki are proportionally much longer than those 
of C. japonica, except perhaps for Versluys’ spect- 
men no. 3 of his ‘form B” (1906, p. 118, figs. 
166-168), which is probably not C. japonica at 
all but something close to the present species. 


BAYER: TWO NEW PRIMNOID CORALS 4] 


Genus Narella Gray 
Narella J. E. Gray, 1870, p. 49. 
Stachyodes + Calypterinus Th. Studer [and E. P. 


Wright], 1887, p. 49; IX. P. Wright and Th. 
Studer, 1889, pp. xlviii, 53, 54. 


Diagnosis.—Primnoids mostly branched di- 
chotomously, in one plane or bushy. Zooids 
arranged in whorls, with their mouths directed 
downward; body scales three pairs of large, 
curved plates, of which the basal pair may meet 
adaxially to form a closed ring (in one species the 
buccal pair also); adaxial buccal (marginal) scales 
are frequently present in one or more pairs. The 
operculum consists of eight large scales. Spicules 
of the stem rind variable, elongate or scalelike, 
in one or two layers. 


Fic. 1.—Calyptrophora clarki n. sp.: A, Two distalmost whorls from the type specimen; &, three 
opercular scales, abaxial, inner lateral and adaxial, of the large, lacimiate type; C, the same, of the small 
type; D, typical zooid, side view; H, basal scale ring: art, articulating ridge; /’, buccal seale ring: art, 
articulating ridge which rides on that of the basal ring. 


Fic. 2.—Narella leilae n. sp.: A, Adaxial view of zooid showing adaxial buccal scales; B, a whorl of 
normal zooids; C, opercular view of zooid; D-M, opercular scales: ’, K, M, apical, inner face, and side 
view of major abaxial opercular scale; NV, O, adaxial buccal scales (scale at J applies to all opercular 
scales); P, small flattened rods from the tentacles (scale applies only to P); Q, zooid whorl from above, 
showing worm tunnel (scale applies only to Q); R, zooid whorl from side, showing ‘‘arcade polyps”’ 
with abnormally expanded basal scales (scale apples to A-C, R, 8S); S, normal zooid from the side, 
showing: dor, ‘‘dorsal”’ and lat, lateral regions of basal scale; and bla, the basolateral angle which sepa- 
rates the two. 


JANUARY 1951 


Genotype.—Primnoa regularis Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860 (by monotypy). 

Remarks.—As Miss Deichmann (1936, p. 168) 
points out, Narella clearly has priority over 
Stachyodes. The genus Calypterinus was estab- 
lished for a specimen with abnormal polyps due to 
a polychaete commensal. Calyptrophorines, es- 
pecially Narella, are frequently infested with 
worms which cause adjacent polyps along one 
side of the stem to form greatly expanded basal 
scales which produce a sort of arcade in which the 
worm makes its home (Fig. 2, Q, R). 


Narella leilae, n. sp. Fig. 2 

Diagnosis-—Branching lateral-dichotomous, i2 
one plane. Zooids small, 2.0-2.5 mm long, facing 
basally; only basal scale pair meeting adaxially to 
form a ring; free margins of all three body-scale 
pairs broadly expanded but not forming long, 
projecting points; free lateral border of each basal 
scale with a downward and forward projecting 
angle; basal scale distinctly divided into dorsal 


and lateral regions by a basolateral angle. Oper- - 


culum low, the individual scales broad, with a 
high inner keel. 

Description—The type consists of three frag- 
ments, the largest of which is about 70 mm tall 
and twice branched dichotomously. In the proxi- 
mal part the axis is a little flattened in the plane 
of branching, oval in the lowest part of the type 
specimen, becoming almost round in the distal- 
most tips; it is longitudinally grooved, and of a 
brownish-yellow color with moderate luster. The 
downward facmg zooids (Fig. 2, S) are 2.0-2.5 
mm long (measured parallel to the branch), 
arranged in whorls of four to six (Fig. 2, B), of 
which 10-12 occur in 3 cm of axial length. The 
zooid body is surrounded by three pairs of large 
scales, of which only the basal pair meet adaxially 
to form a ring; the free edges of all three pairs are 
broadly expanded, those of the basal and medial 
pairs more or less reflexed while that of the buccals 
is curved a little inward; basals bent along a 
definite basolateral angle which divides the scale 
into dorsal and lateral regions; the free lateral 
edge of the basal scale has a forward and down- 
ward projecting angle (Fig. 2, S). The operculum 
is very low; the scales are broad, the largest 
abaxial almost pentagonal in face view (Fig. 2, 
K), and each is furnished with a very high keel 
on the inner face and corresponding groove on the 
outer (Fig. 2, D-M). One pair of adaxial buceals 
is present (Fig. 2, A, V, O). The tentacles contain 
very small (0.04-0.07 mm) flat rods (Fig. 2, P). 


BAYER: TWO NEW PRIMNOID CORALS 43 


The coenenchyma scales are irregular, rather 
elongate plates, those nearest to zooids often with 
a high, thin longitudinal crest. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 49724. 

Locality.—Off Kapoposang Light, Straits of 
Macassar, lat. 4° 43’ 22” §., long. 118° 53’ 18” E., 
400 fathoms, hard bottom, bottom temperature 
43.3° F., December 28, 1909 (Albatross station 
5664). 

Additional record.—Oft Gomomo Island, Pitt 
Passage, lat. 1° 53’ 30” S., long. 127° 39’ 00” E., 
400 fathoms, coral, rock, soapstone, (no te: pcr 
ature data), December 3, 1909 (Albatross staticn 
5635). 

Remarks.—Narella leilae, n. sp., shows a certain 
resemblance to NV. clavata (Versluys) in its closed 
basal scale pair and definite basolateral angles; 
the development of abnormal “arcade polyps” 
(Fig. 2, Y, R) induced by polychaete commensals 
is similar to that of Narella allmani (Wright and 
Studer). Narella leilae differs from N. clavata in 
its smaller zooids and exceptionally low oper- 
culum, its thinner and more delicate body scales, 
and in absence of a high dorsal crest on the basals; 
from N. allmani it differs in having adaxially’ 
closed basal scales, the buccals not being drawn 
out into projecting points, and in the much 
broader opercular scales. 


LITERATURE CITED 


DetcuMann, Evisaperu. The Alcyonaria of the 
western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 58: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936. 

DucHassaInG DE Fonsressin, P., and Micur- 
Lottr, J. Mémoire sur les coralliaires des 
Antilles. Mem. Accad. Sci. Torino (2) 19: 
279-365, pls. 1-10. 1860. 

Gray, Joun Epwarp. Description of two new forms 
of gorgonioid corals. Proc. Zool. Soe. London 
1866: 24-27, figs 1-2. 1866. 

. Catalogue of lithophytes or stony corals in the 
collection of the British Museum. 2 lvs. + 1-51, 
figs. 1-14. 1870. 

Nurtine, CHARLES CLEVELAND. Descriptions of 
the Alcyonaria collected by the U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries steamer Albatross in the vicinity of 
the Hawarian Islands in 1902. Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. 34: 548-601, pls. 41-51. 1908. 

Sruppr, THéorHt1ne [and Wriaur, Epwarp 
Prerceva].. Versuch eines Systemes der Aley- 
onaria. Arch. fiir Naturg. 538 Jahrg. (1): 1-74, 
pl. 1. 1887. 

Vmersiuys, J. Die Gorgoniden der Siboga Expedi- 
tion. II. Die Primnoitdae. Siboga Exped. 18a: 
1-187, 178 figs., pls. 1-10, chart. 1906. 

Wricut, Epwarp Prrcevar, and Sruprer, Tuko- 
PHILE. Report on the Alcyonaria collected by 
H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. 
Challenger Reports, Zool., $1: i-lxxi + 1-814, 

pls. 1-48. 1889. 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. | 


ZOOLOGY .—A new species of polychaete worm of the family Polynoidae from Point 
Barrow, Alaska.1 Martan H. Prerripone, Arctic Research Laboratory, Johns 
Hopkins University. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


The new species of Polynoidae herein 
described is part of a collection of poly- 
chaetes from Point Barrow, Alaska, collected 
by George E. MacGinitie, of the Arctic Re- 
search Laboratory. The types are deposited 
in the United States National Museum. I 
take pleasure in naming it after Austin H. 
Clark, retiring curator of echinoderms, 
United States National Museum. 


Family PoLyNoIDArE 
Genus Eunoé Malmgren, 1865 
Eunoé clarki, n. sp. 

Fig. 1, a-e 


Measurements—The type (U.S.N.M. no. 
21984), of 41 segments, is 838 mm long, 8 mm wide 
excluding setae, and 12 mm wide including setae. 
The paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 21985), of 40 seg- 
ments, 1s 36 mm long and is of the same width as 
the type. 

Description.—The body is linear-oblong, widest 
in segments 9 to 27, narrowing slightly anteriorly 
and slightly more so posteriorly; it is oval in cross 
section. The middorsum is transversely banded 
with grayish green; the ventral surface is without 
color except for the grayish-green coloration an- 
terior and lateral to the mouth. Fifteen pairs of 
elytra nearly cover the dorsum; they are large, 
imbricated, arranged on segments 2, 4,5, 7,9... 
23, 26, 29, and 32. The elytra (Fig. 1, a) are oval 
to subreniform in shape, greenish gray in color, 
with a darker mottled pattern on most of the 
exposed parts of the elytra, and with a darker 
spot medial to a lighter area over the elytrophore 
—giving the appearance of paired “‘ocelli”’ (similar 
in this regard to Halosydna brevisetosa Kinberg). 
The elytral border is smooth except for scattered 
clavate micropapillae (Fig. 1, e). The elytral 
surface, although appearing smooth, is furnished 
with numerous chitinous bluntly conical micro- 
tubercles (up to 30u in height, Fig. 1, e). 

The prostomium (Fig. 1, a) is bilobed, wider 
than long, somewhat pigmented, with a deep 
anteromedian notch; cephalic peaks are lacking. 
The four eyes aresmall, the posterior pair situated 
dorsal and slightly posterior to the widest part of 

1 This study was aided by a contract between 
the Office of Naval Research, Department of the 


Navy, and Johns Hopkins University. Received 
October 6, 1950. 


the prostomium, the anterior pair are antero- 
lateral. The median antenna has a large pig- 
mented ceratophore; the style is about 1.5 times 
the length of the prostomium, with a pigmented 
proximal part, and with very short scattered 
clavate papillae. The lateral antennae are in- 
serted ventral to the median antenna on the 
prostomium; the ceratophores are short, darkly 
pigmented; the styles are short—about half the 
length of the median antenna—and furnished 
with short papillae. The palpi are about 2.5 times 
the length of the prostomium, with longitudinal 
rows of fine papillae. 

The tentacular segment (Fig. 1, a) has the 
basal lobes elongated, pigmented on the basal 
half, with one seta; the tentacular cirri are longer 
than the median antenna, about 2.5 times the 
length of the prostomium, with a wide pigmented 
zone basally and a narrow darker pigmented ring 
below the subterminal slightly bulbous enlarge- 
ment, with a filamentous tip, and with short 
scattered clavate papillae. The dorsal cirri (Fig. 
1, a) have elongated cirrophores, bulbous basally 
and narrower distally; the styles are similar to the 
tentacular cirri, with or without the basal pig- 
mented zone, and extend beyond the tips of the 
setae. The dorsal tubercles, corresponding to the 
elytrophores on the cirrus-bearing segments, are 
short and bulbous. The ventral cirri are subulate, 
enlarged basally, tapering distally to filamentous 
tips (Fig. 1, 6). The anal cirri are missing. The 
segmental or nephridial papillae begin on segment 
6 and continue posteriorly; they are rather long 
and cylindrical, especially in the segments of the 
middle third of the body. 

The parapodia (Fig. 1, 6) are biramous. The 
notopodium is a rounded lobe on the anterodorsal 
face of the neuropodium, extending out into a 
narrower acicular lobe from which the aciculum 
projects. The notosetae (Fig. 1, 6, c) are amber- 
colored, moderate in number (about 40), forming 
a spreading bundle; they are slightly arched, 
slender to stout (20-80 in greatest diameter), 
with long spinous regions extending over half of 
the exposed length, and short bare pomted to 
blunt tips. The neuropodium is obliquely truncate 
distally, with a longer dorsoanterior acicular lobe. 
The neurosetae (Fig. 1, 6, d) are amber-colored, 
moderate in size (80-50 in diameter in the stem 


4 


JANUARY 1951 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES 
region, 36-62y in greatest diameter in the en- 
larged distal region), with transverse spinous 
rows (9-24 or so rows), and rather long bare 
entire tips. 

Remarks.—Eunoé clarki resembles in superficial 
appearance Halosydna brevisetosa Kinberg—the 
common Pacific coast polynoid—particularly in 
its linear shape and mottled elytral pigmentation 
with paired “‘ocelli.” It differs from Hunoé nodosa 
(Sars) and Hunoé oerstedi Malmgren in lacking 
macrotubercles and fringes of papillae on the 


b 


Fig. 1.—Eunoé clarki, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium, first three segments, and second right 


elytron and parapodium of fourth segment (first ely 


OF POLYCHAETE WORM 45 
elytra, in the smaller eyes, and in the location of 
the anterior pai of eyes—anterolateral and not 
anterodorsal. It might well prove to be commensal 
in habit, as shown by the small eyes, absence of 
elytral macrotubercles, and elytral fringes of 
papillae. 

Locality—Two specimens were collected at 
Point Barrow base, Alaska, by George HE. Mac- 
Ginitie, October 17, 1949. They were washed 
ashore after a storm along with many other 
animals, including numerous polychaetes. 


tral pair and second left elytron removed); b, thir 


teenth right parapodium, posterior view; c, tip of notoseta; d, tip of middle subacicular neuroseta; e, 


few microtubercles and papilla from eighth elytron. 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 1 


ENTOMOLOGY .—4A new genus and species of North American Olethreutidae (Lep- 
idoptera: Laspeyresiinae).! J. F. Gates CiarKe, Bureau of Entomology and 


Plant Quarantine. 


The new species of olethreutid moth de- 
scribed herein, which becomes the type of a 
new genus, I take pleasure in naming for 
my friend Austin H. Clark, retiring curator 


of echinoderms of the United States Na-~ 


tional Museum, who, among his other ac- 
complishments, is a lepidopterist of long- 
standing and world-wide repute. 


Corticivora, n. gen. 
Figs. 1-le 


Typus generis.—Corticwora clark, n. sp. 

Head rough; labial palpus not exceeding front, 
third segment about one-fifth the length of 
second. Thorax without posterior tuft. 

Forewing smooth; termen nearly straight; 12 
veins, all separate; vein 2 remote from 3; 3, 4, and 
5 approximate at bases; 8 and 9 approximate 
basally; 11 from before middle; upper internal 
vein of cell from between 10 and 11, very weakly 
developed. Costal fold absent. 

Hindwing with normal pecten on lower median 
vein; 8 veins; 3 and 4 stalked; 6 and 7 stalked; 
termen slightly concave. 

Male genitalia with cucullus narrow and sac- 
culus broad without spine clusters; soci well- 
developed, fleshy, haired pads; uncus absent. 

Female genitalia with signa developed as 
scobinate-dentate cones. 

Structurally Corticivora is similar to Gypsonoma 
(Eucosminae) though remaining clearly laspey- 
resiine. As in Gypsonoma all veins of the forewing 
are separate in Corticwora and in the hindwing 3 
and 4 and 6 and 7 are stalked. The upper internal 
vein of Gypsonoma arises between 9 and 10 and 
that of Corticivora between 10 and 11. In the 
hindwing vein 5 of Gypsonoma is approximate to 
4, whereas that of Corticivora is remote from 4. 

In both genera the socii are present, a character 
seldom found in the Laspeyresiinae. 

Corticivora appears to be most nearly related to 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


Laspeyresia but differs from it by the stalking of 
veins 6 and 7 of the hindwing, the presence of 
soci, and the form of the signa. 


Corticivora clarki, n. sp. 


Alar expanse, 10-11 mm. 

Labial palpus sordid whitish; second segment 
suffused and sparsely irrorate with gray; second 
segment almost wholly gray externally, except 
apex. Antenna dark grayish fuscous with narrow, 
paler annulations. Head creamy white. Thorax 
grayish fuscous. Ground color of forewing cinere- 
ous, the scales narrowly white-tipped; basal patch 
and other dark markings grayish fuscous as 
illustrated; narrow subbasal line of cilia black, 
cilia leaden. Hindwing light grayish fuscous; cilia, 
except subbasal band, paler. Legs creamy white 
suffused and banded with grayish fuscous. Ab- 


domen grayish fuscous above, creamy white 
beneath. 
Male genitalia.—As figured. Cucullus with 


strong, long setae along ventral edge; aedeagus 
broad and flattended dorsally and distal two- 
thirds abruptly narrowed, cylindrical, pointed. 

Female genitalia.—As figured. Signa conical, 
studded with sharp scobinate-dentate processes; 
posterior portion of ductus bursae lightly sclero- 
tized, slender. 

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 60582. 

Type locality.—North Guilford, Conn. 

Food plant—Red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.). 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
four male and three female paratypes from the 
type locality, all reared by G. H. Plumb and J. V. 
Schaffner. Emergence dates range from June 24 
to July 2, 1944. Paratypes in the U. 8. National 
Museum and British Museum (Natural History). 

G. H. Plumb, who submitted the above ma- 
terial for identification, will publish the life history 


_ of this mteresting species. 


The photographs for the accompanying fig- 
ures were taken by Floyd B. Kestner, pnouoge aq 
pher of the Smithsonian Institution. 


JANUARY 1951 CLARKE: NEW SPECIES OF OLETHREUTID MOTH 47 


(se 
. 


~ 
& 
“sy, 


ld : le 


Figs. 1-le.—Corticivora clarki, n. sp.: 1, Left wings; la, venation of right wings; 1b, ventral view of 
male genitalia with aedeagus in situ; lc, enlarged view of signa; ld, detail of genital plate and ostium; 
le, ventral view of female genitalia. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 1 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


441ST MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 441st meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on November 20, 1950, 
was called to order at 8:03 p. m. by the Presi- 
dent, F. B. Stusper. Also present were: N. R. 
Smita, W. N. Fenton, C. L. Gazin, A. T. 
McPuerson, W. A. Dayton, H. W. Hempte, 
Marcarer Prirrman, F. M. Serzuer, and, by 
invitation, L. W. Parr. 

The President announced the appointment of 
the following Subcommittee for the Teaching of 
Science of the Committee on Awards for Scientific 
Achievement for 1950: B. D. Van Evnra, chair- 
man, R. P. Barnus, F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyt, 
M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSON. 

Twenty-six persons were elected to member- 
ship in the Academy. 

The following report of the Nominating Com- 
mittee was presented: 


The Nominating Committee, consisting cf the 
Academy’s Vice-presidents, met in the library of 
the Cosmos Club on November 6, 1950. The meet- 
ing was called to order at 5 p.m. by F. C. Kracex, 
who presided. Others present were: C. F. W. 
MuversersBeck, J.S. Wriiiams, W. A. Dayton, F.M. 
Deranporr, E. W. Price, MARGARET PITTMAN, 
H.W. Hempue, and H. G. Dorsry. F. M. Srrzter 
acted as secretary but took no part in the bal- 
loting. 

The nominees selected for the offices to be filled 
by the balloting of the membership in December 
were as follows: For President-elect, WALTER RAM- 
BERG; for Secretary, FRANCIS M. DrraNnporp; for 
Treasurer, Howarp 8. Rappirye; for Board of 
Managers to serve 3 vears (two to be elected), Sara 
E. Branuam, Mivron Harris, C. F. W. Murse- 
BECK, JOHN A. STEVENSON. 


The Secretary reported the death on June 18, 
1950, of Frank W. Scuwas, of the National 
Bureau of Standards (elected October 15, 1945). 

The meeting adjourned at 8:40 p. m. 


442D MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 442d meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on December 18, 1950, 
was called to order by the President, F. B. 


SILSBEB, at 8:02 p. m. Also present were: N. R. 
SmitH, H. 8. Rappieys, J. A. Stevenson, F. M. 
Derranporr, W. R. Wepext, W. A. Dayton, C. 
A. Brerts, E. W. Price, Marcarer Pirrman, 
F. M. Srerzuer, and, by invitation, R. G. Bass. 

The President announced the plans for the 
Encouragement of Science Talent and the Sci- 
ence Fair, indicating that he had requested the 
customary contributions from the various Affili- 
ated Societies for the support of these activities. 

The Chairman of the Committee on Meetings, 
F. M. DeranporrF, announced that there would 
be no regular meeting of the Academy in Decem- 
ber. He reported, however, that he had arranged 
for Dr. Per K. Frouicu, former director of re- 
search and now vice-president of Merck & Co., 
to serve as guest speaker at the annual meeting 
and dinner of the Academy to be held at the 
Kennedy-Warren on January 18, 1951. 

The Chairman of the Committee on Member- 
ship, R. G. Bares, presented the names of 14 
resident and 3 nonresident candidates for mem- 
bership in the Academy. One nonresident candi- 
date previously presented was elected. Two 
members, Howarp P. Barss and Victor Bircx- 
NER, were placed on the retired list, effective De- 
cember 31, 1950. 

The Treasurer, H. 8. RappLeyn, reported on 
purchases of office furniture that had been made 
for the Treasurer’s office and requested that an 
increased allotment of $25 be made to the budget 
of the Treasurer. The request was unanimously 
approved. 

The Archivist, J. A. StevENSON, reported that 
he and former Archivist, N. A. Smirx, had made 
a final reorganization of all records of the Acad- 
emy in the office of the Archivist and that he 
had prepared a detailed inventory of this material 
to be presented as his report at the annual meet- 
ing of the Academy in January. 

Mr. STEVENSON also gave an interesting report 
on the Seventh International Botanical Congress, 
held in Stockholm, Sweden, July 12-20, 1950, at 
which he represented the Academy as delegate. 

The meeting adjourned at 8:55 p. m. 

Frank M. Serzumr, Secretary. 


Ge fe bay 
NOTE 
Those whose pleasant task it was to bring together the contents of this number 
of the JouRNAL of the Washington Academy of Sciences, honoring Austin H. Clark, 
have endeavored to reflect Mr. Clark’s wide interest in the natural sciences, although 
they did not attempt to include papers in all fields in which he has specialized. 
Mr. Clark’s own paper, on ‘The Brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic 
Expedition 1947-48,” which he submitted to the editors of the JouRNAL last Sep- 
tember, was included in this issue without, of course, the author’s knowledge. It 
seems not unfitting, however, that this example of Mr. Clark’s work should appear 
here in an array of scientific papers by those who seek to do him honor. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[PROSTGIGURS Rete TOO Bp BEE ORE Francis B. Siuspex, National Bureau of Standards 
PR ESSUCTI LHC LECL my Salesian ee eA Ae eee Naraan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station 
SGERAAETO) s CaO a Be a cet OR Ore Roe ee Frank M. Srerzumr, "U.S. National Museum 
INRODSURER Sb geo eke ae PS one Howarp 8. Raprieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAR CIEULS ERR eM ithe cnet hnse enc eis Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington.......................... Frank C. Kracek 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Waxpo R. WEDEL 
Biolocicallsocietyson Washington he. saauct acces sce e cee one 

@hemicall Society,of Washington. 2222 5...--..2c-- 4.6 suse ccee James I. Horrman 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ C. F. W. MursEBECK 
INatronalli'Geographic!Society,.....0.......60000..0s sense cee: ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington........................ JAMES STEELE WILLIAMS 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... FREDERICK O. CoE 
ColumbiayeistoricaliSocletyar-re soc. es cece een a. GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Botanical sociebyzon Washington’. yo.-55.--2 20.0 oe. eseee one FrRreEeMAN A. WEIsSs 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters...... .... Witi1AM A. Dayton 
Washington Society Olalingineershet se ee ee ee Cuirrorp A. Brerts 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DeranporF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. Dinu 


Helminthological Society of Washington........................ Emmett W. PRIcE 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists..... Marcarer PirrMaNn 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Henry W. HemMeLe 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... Hersert G. DorsEy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 


wren B. FRENCH 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


PRoramnuUany LOOM. Seite ce eee cece Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON 

Wha VEmineryy OGY 7e Noe eae aan ae Cee eee Witutam F. Fosuaa, C. Lewis Gazin 

PROM AIAUT AI yee L OGM erane leie: start asc chee si nisise eked syne Howarp P. Barss, A. T. McPHEeRson 
2@GRG) Off WOT AR a aoe oe ae Oe All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Batranojmuaicojsiand Aissocvate Haitons .. o.ssek cess eee eee ee (See front cover) 
Executive Commitiee.............. Francis B. SinsBEe (chairman), NatHAN R. SMITH, 
Witiiam N. Fenton, Howarp S. RappLerye, Frank M. Serzuer 

Committee on Membership........... Rocer G. BaTEs (chairman), M=RRILL BERNARD, 


Cuirrorp A. Berrs, WILBUR BuRBANK, Rosert C. Duncan, REGINA FLANNERY, 

A. B. Gurney, E. H. KENNARD, C. L. LEFEBVRE, C. W. REEs, Donatp C. Smita, 

L. A. SPINDLER 

Committee on Meetings....... Francis M. Drranporr (chairman), FREDERICK O. Con, 

Mitton Harris, Luoyp G. Hensest, Byron J. Otson, Frank B. ScHEETz 
Commuitiee on Monographs: 


MRowanwary 1951). o2 \..escc0 9: Emmett W. Price (chairman), Wittiam N. FENTON 
Mordamiary LISD! se etek sas ets cus eisai Pau H. Oruser, JASON R. SWALLEN 
Mow amitrariyiel DHS eperse sets: le crores le sragsseiswianevels Rauew W. Imuay, Paut W. Oman 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (T. DALE STEWART, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences........................ T. Date STEWART (chairman), 


Enotse B. Cram, AUREL O. Foster, Expert L. Littits, Jr., Haroip 
H. McKinney, JosErn S. WaDE 


For the Engineering Sciences...................... Water RAMBERG (chairman), 
Louis W. Currier, Rospert C. Duncan, Outtver S. Reapine, Harry W. WELLS 
Homthe Physical Scitences).-.................... Rosert D. Huntoon (chairman), 


Wituiam Buum, Micuart GoLtpBErG, Raymonp J. Seecer, Urnest H. VESTINE 
Commitiee on Grants-in-aid for Research: 

J. Lron SHERESHEFSEY (chairman), Cornetius J. Connouiy, L. Epwin Yocum 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


PRoJamuaryal OMe. see ccc ciiestel: LELAND W. Parr (chairman), Austin H. CLark 

wR ORNs ODD) «he. cc mes wecacueevervee shei ces sep tus James I. Horrman, Martin A. Mason 

IL@ diana ICE ine qee saneeeas cone mmee ge Wiuiram A. Dayton, Natuan R. Smita 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

PRoWanwanyalOol ae vcr yaaa eis ts: B. D. Van Evra, JossepH M. CALDWELL 

Morantanyal G52i en ee eee. Martin A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERSON 

ORAM UaTyal Ooo me tienen clttcrerente ov nanccruaratls Austin H. Cruarx, Frep L. Monier 

ligepiasaaanag (ce (Coomera Oy F\o Fle Ale Sion bp oon cuecodanGuescenaucece Frank M. Serzuer 

CommittecnofpAUaulors. snciiae ene do sean nade. oe Water D. Surciirrs (chairman), 

C. Lewis Gazin, Raymonp L. SANFORD 

Committee of Tellers............ Fenner A. Cuace, JR. (chairman), Haroup F’. Stimson, 


Easert H. WALKER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Dedication — HBRBERTHRIBDIANN| ieee ee eee eee “i es 
Jeanna Of Aoi lelOoaps CUM Bccose6 2 cesecns0cn06. ob 2 
Biographical Resumé — WALDO) In) SCHMITT 944-2) 22-20 44 ae 3 
* * * 
PaLEONTOLOGY.—New brachiopods from the Lower Cambrian of Virginia. 
GARTHUR: COOPER: 2.0.0) cA ain Boe to ee 4 
PaLEONTOLOGY.—Two new guide fossils from the Tallahatta formation of 
the Southeastern States. JuLIA GARDNER...................... 8 
PaLEontToLocy.—Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., a concentrically sculptured 
Nucula from the Lisbon formation of Alabama. F. Srmarns Mac- 
INGOT Neer Bos, Sacdot hia ald lege eB eto igen tack te: <a 12 
Mataco.toecy.—New stenothyrid gastropods from the Philippines (Risso- 
idae)... Re. TUCKER: ABBOTT: ..). 3 sib. dynes ooo ee 14 


Matacotocy.—Two new Western Atlantic species of pulmonate mollusks 
of the genus Detracia and two old ones (family Ellobiidae). J. P. E. 


MORRISON: 0. . 05 60 osc weer sdk clas SR hs cha oe ee ili 
Mauacotogy.—A new species of glycymerid from the Philippines. 
DaAvap! INICOm., |. 2) Sa ish aoa db apes uc re ve a vers Sere ca a 20 
Mauacotoey.—Two new Recent cone shells from the Western Atlantic 
(Conidae). Haratp A. Renprer and R. Tuckrr ABBOTT........ 22 
Matacotoey.—A new scaphopod mollusk, Cadulus austinclarki, from 
the Gulf of California. Wi~it1aAmM K. EMmRSON.................. 24 
Zootocy.—tThe brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic Expe- 
dition 1947-48. Austin. H. ChARK::..:.:..:..52 Wi. eeeeeeee 26 
ZooLtoGy.—A new genus and species of notodelphyoid copepod from 
Japan’  Paun DL. IinGo. css fee oe aes a: es 30 
ZooLocy.—The grass shrimps of the genus Hippolyte from the west coast 
of North America. sEENNER, Ac (@HACE! JURY. 2050) eee 35 
ZooLtoGy.—Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily Calyptrophorinae 
(Coelenterata: Octocorallia). FREpERIcK M. BAymR............. 40 
ZooLoGcy.—A new species of polychaete worm of the family Polynoidae 
from Point Barrow, Alaska. Marian H. PETTIBONE............. 44 
EntTomoLtocy.—A new genus and species of North American Olethreut- 
idae (Lepidoptera: Laspeyresiinae). J. F. Gates CLARKE........ 46 
PROCEEDINGS: THm -ACADEMY .).)..02 740 on eelec: loon eels ae 48 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vot. 41 Frpruary 1951 No. 2 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


February 1951 


No. 2 


ARCHEOLOGY —A survey of new archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru.1 Parte 
D. Curtin. (Communicated by Gordon R. Willey.) 


TOPOGRAPHICAL SETTING 


The province of Pataz (see map, Fig. 1), 
located at the eastern edge of the Peruvian 
highlands, enjoys an isolation that is un- 
common even in rural Peru. Not only is it 
too far east to be in the orbit of the ancient 
north-south route through Huamachuco, Ca- 


jabamba, and Cajamarca, but its own ter-. 


rain has prevented its extensive use as a 
jumping-off place for one of the several trails 
from the highlands into the eastern jungle. 
Aside from pure distance from the centers of 
population in the highlands, like Huama- 
chuco, Pataz is also cut off from the main 
body of the mountains by the cafion of the 
Marafion River, which forms a barrier from 
south to north. Pataz is simply the western 
slope of the final eastern range of the Andes. 
From the Marafion, flowing at an altitude 
of 1,300 meters in the Pataz region, to the 
top of the eastern cordillera at more than 
4,000 meters the distance as the crow flies 
is only 14 km at some points and nowhere 
more than 25 km. The Marafion and the 
crest of the eastern cordillera form the west- 
ern and eastern boundaries of the province. 
This gives the whole province the effect 
of being turned up at an angle of about 

1 This report summarizes the architectural find- 
ings of an expedition to Pataz during a part of the 
months of July and August, 1949, sponsored by the 
Institute of Anthropology of the National Uni- 
versity of Trujillo, Peru. The personnel included 
the author, Luis Gutiérrez, John Ladd, Mrs. 
Helen P. Ladd, and Mrs. Phyllis Curtin, all of 
whom contributed to the preparation of this re- 
port. The author is indebted to Richard Schaedel, 
the director of the Institute of Anthropology, and 
to Drs. José Hulogio Garrido and Manuel Zava- 
leta C., of Trujillo, for their assistance in the field. 
He also wishes to express appreciation for consul- 
tations with Drs. A. Kidder, II, and Wendell C. 
Bennett. Sr. Gutiérrez is preparing a report on the 
ceramic and skeletal materials from Pataz, which 
will appear elsewhere. 


ee 


49 


20°, but this slope is not uniform. The valley 
of the Marafion was once a pleasant saucer- 
shaped valley with the river flowing on hard 
rock strata at about 2,500 meters. Once 
these strata were worn through, the river 
cut through the softer material leaving a 
cahion with extremely steep sides falling off 
more than 1,000 meters from the original 
valley floor. 

The difficulties in crossing the Marafion, 
even by mule, have retarded the economic 
development of Pataz, but in recent years 
two mining centers have grown up at Reta- 
mas and La Paccha. Until now the mines 
have been supplied by mule trains from 
across the Marafion and by air to a small 
landing strip at the southeast end of the 
Laguna de Pias. A highway from Huama- 
chuco to Chagual on the Marafion and from 
there to Tayadamba, passing through the 
mining centers has been under construction 
for some years and may be finished by 1951. 

In addition to the inaccessibility of the 
region from the central highlands, the eastern 
tributaries of the Marafion have cut the 
province transversely, at some points to the 
depth of the Maranon itself. In central Pataz 
there are two such barriers. One of these is 
the valley formed by the Parcoy River, the 
Laguna de Pias, and the Alpamarea River. 
The second is the river valley formed by the 
Rio de la Playa rising near Buldibuyo and 
the Rio de Cajas rising near Tayabamba. 
These join at Huaylillas to form the Rio de 
Nahuinbamba flowing into the Maranon at 
Puente Jocos. These two deep valleys ef- 
fectively separate the central massif and 
the high puna lying between Chilia, Pareoy, 
and Buldibuyo from the regions centering 
around Tayabamba to the south and the 
town of Pataz to the north. 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 2 


The expedition in 1949 confined itself toa the Nahuinbamba on the south and the 
survey of the archeological remains in the Parcoy on the north. This forms a small 
central area, that is, to the area between natural geographical region centering around 


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Fic. 1.—Map showing archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru. 


Frsruary 1951 


the town of Chilia and its rich valley. Al- 
though this region is not large, there are 
enormous climatic variations. In the high 
puna within the triangle Chilia-Parcoy-Bul- 
dibuyo the cold high grasslands are used 
principally for sheep raising. Lower down 
transportation animals are grazed. Still lower 
in the valleys of Chilia, of the Parcoy, the 
de la Playa, the Parcoycito, and the Queros 
the normal Andean crops of maize, wheat, 
potatoes, and alfalfa are grown. In the canon 
of the Marafion there are no crops below 
the altitude of 2,500 meters because of ex- 
treme aridity. Only desert vegetation is 
found from that altitude to the bottom of 
the cafion. Along the banks of the river it- 
self small areas are irrigated and planted in 
coffee, oranges, mangoes, and bananas. Sur- 
plus agricultural products are mainly sold 
to the two mining centers at Retamas and 
La Paecha, but a small amount is also ex- 
ported across the Marafion. 


CHILIA 


The present village of Chilia, at 3,170 
meters in the center of the arable area, was 
not an ancient habitation site. It was formed, 
according to local legend, under the Viceroy 
Toledo in the late sixteenth century from 
the two older villages of Chilia and Charcoy 
located on opposite sides of the valley. The 
tradition of the two separate villages is still 
strong and has a part in many local rivalries. 
Nevertheless, the patasinos generally have 
forgotten Quechua and any precedent lan- 
guages and speak only Spanish. Casual ob- 
servation seems to indicate that the popu- 
lation is almost entirely mestizo. 

In spite of its relatively recent origin, 
Chilia has come to have more stone sculp- 
ture than any site found in Pataz. The 


motif, 


Fig. 2.—Stone relief slab with feline 


Chilia Village. 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 51 


~ 


I) 


ec ae 


OVO 


Fic. 3.—Warrior figure 86 cm high from stone 
relief slab, Chilia village. 


ancient citadel of Nunamarea. is close to the 
village and has supplied almost all of the 
building stone used in its construction. The 
inhabitants have also gathered a number of 
stone slabs carved in relief. These are kept as 
decorative pieces for door sills or for decora- 
tion within the houses. Twenty-four pieces 
were examined, though there are surely many 
more in the vicinity.” These fell into moder- 
ately well-defined motif catagories. Of the 
24 examples, eight had designs depicting 
felines. These are carved in relief 5 to 10 
mm high on one side of stone slabs about 
20 em wide by 50 cm long and 10 em thick 
(Fig. 2). These figures showed no particular 
orientation of the head to the right or the 
left of the slab, but all faces were shown full- 
face and had a strong tendency toward an- 
thropomorphic features. All tails were curved 
upward. The number of toes shown on the 
feet varied from one to four, with several 
examples having two very birdlike toes. In 
addition to the eight slabs showing a single 
* The National Museum at Pueblo Libre has a 
collection of stone sculpture from Chilia and 
Nunamarea made by Dr. Julio Tello in the late 
thirties. Unfortunately, Dr. Tello did not pub- 
lish a report on this expedition before his death, 
and the National Museum does not indicate the 
exact provenance of these exhibits. In addition 
to the sculpture types found in 1949, this exhibit 
includes head-tenons from the Chilia area. 


Fie. 4.—Figure 35 em high from stone relief 
slab, Chilia Village. 


feline, two slabs showed two feline figures. 
One of these had two typical felines with 
their heads together at the center of the 
slab. The other was similar, except that the 
two felines shared a single head, having one 
body on either side. 

Next to the feline, the most common figure 
on relief slabs was a warrior figure, occurring 
on five slabs of the 24. Typically this is a 
full-length figure of a man holding a club 
in one hand and a trophy head in the other. 
The only clothing commonly shown is a 
3-element crown on the head, ear plugs, and 
an ornament resembling wings projecting 
on either side of the body from the hips. 
Genitals are often shown (Fig. 3). 

Third in frequency of occurrence is a full- 
face anthropomorphie figure with both arms 
and legs in the air, occurring in four of the 
24 examples. The arms are shown straight 
out from the shoulders and then upward 
at a right angle from the elbow (Fig. 4). 
The legs are bent outward from the hips 
and upward from the knees The only cloth- 
ing shown on this type of figure is a three- 
element crown worn by two of the four 
examples. 

The remaining stone sculpture is not 
clearly classifiable by groups. Three of the 
five remaining designs were geometric in 
character (Fig. 5) and showed no recog- 
nizable naturalistic motif. Of the remaining 
two, one showed a monkey in sitting posi- 
tion (Fig. 6). The other was a human head 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


in the round, very roughly carved in the 
natural rock about 26 em high and 13 em in 
diameter. 
NUNAMARCA 

Closely associated with Chilia village there 
are two archaeological sites. The more im- 
portant of these is Nunamarca, the largest 
site discovered in Chilia Valley. It is located 
at the top of a rocky promontory jutting 
into the center of Chilia Valley at an alti- 
tude of about 3,500 meters, or 300 meters 
higher than Chilia itself (Fig. 7, b). These 
ruins can be reached from Chilia by following 
the mule trail toward Buldibuyo for about 
4 km and then turning off sharply to the 
right at the farm of Augusto Dominguez. 
This house roughly marks the northern limits 
of the site. To the south and west the site 
is bounded by the steep sides of the bluff. 

At present Nunamarca is in a very bad 
state of preservation. It has been cultivated 
for some generations as well as being used as 
a quarry for building stones over the last 
several hundred years. Few of the former 
walls can be traced, but large numbers of 
cut stones are now piled up or built into 
walls to clear them from the fields. The 
remains of walls and building stones, how- 
ever, still cover an area about 500 meters 
in length by 200 meters in width, an area 
considerably larger than the present village 
of Chilia. At the southern border of the site 
area, overlooking the bluff and cliffs, there 
is an extensive retaining wall about 150 
meters in length and 10 meters to 12 meters 
in height, the total height being broken by 
a terrace about 1 meter wide some 5 meters 
from the top of the wall. This wall is con- 


Fic. 5.—Latticelike design in low relief on 
slab 67 by 47 em, Chilia Village. 


Frpruary 1951 


structed of rows of faced stones 30 cm or 
more in height broken by alternate rows 
of stones no more than 5 cm in height. An 
adobe mortar was used and the rows are 
somewhat irregular. Toward the eastern end 
of this wall about 2.5 meters from the top 
there is the entrance to a gallery about 1 
meter square faced with stone and covered 
with a single stone lintel at the opening. 
According to local informants this was for- 
merly open for some distance under the site, 
but a second shaftlike entrance at the top 
of the ruin was filled a few years ago. The 
dirt from this fill now blocks the gallery a 
meter or so beyond the entrance. 

Although the sculptured stones in Chilia 
village origmally came from Nunamarca, 
only one piece of sculptured stone was found 
at the site itself. This was a slab about 60 em 
in diameter, having a design of six concentric 
semicircles cut into it to the depth of about 
1.5 em. The entire site area was rich in pot- 
sherds on the surface. 


CERRO DE LA CRUZ DEL ORCA 

The second site associated with Chilia 
village is Cerro de la Cruz del Orca, located 
about 1 kilometer to the west of Chilia 
on the ridge slightly below the village. It 
can be reached by trail on foot in a few 
minutes. At present the visible remains are 
undistinguished, being nothing but a single 
platform constructed on a small point. of 
land. This platform is 10 meters to 15 meters 
in diameter and is supported by a stone re- 
taming wall about 5 meters in height, now 
largely fallen down. A great deal of ceramic 
material was found on and around the plat- 
form and at places where the sides were 
badly eroded sherds were found in the earth 
and rubble fill of the platform at a depth of 
about 2 meters. The people who farm the 
site area informed the author that there is a 
cave nearby which is associated with the 
ancient inhabitants and is now inhabited 
by evil spirits. 

THE CANTA DISTRICT 

In the Canta district of Chilia three pre- 
historic habitation sites were examined. For 
lack of definite local names, these have been 
called Canta I, II, and III. All three are 
located within a few hundred meters of the 
easterly of two mule trails from Chilia to- 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU D3 


0.9/, 


ee, 


Fic. 6.—Monkey figure 18 em high from relief 
slab, Chilia village. 


ward Hacienda “‘Deliciana.” Canta I is about 
5 km from the village, while Canta II and 
Canta III are about 2 km farther along. 

From the distance Canta I appears to be 
a low hilltop covered with brush. Beneath 
the underbrush and extending down into 
the cultivated area below there are three 
large concentric terrace levels, varying in 
width from 15 to 40 meters and following 
the conformation of the hill. In the middle 
of the highest terrace level there are remains 
of a truncated pyramid rising in small steps 
and faced with stone. The site area, es- 
pecially the upper levels where walls have 
not been disturbed by cultivation, is covered 
with houses and the remains of walls in 
varying states of preservation. Two prin- 
cipal types of wall construction were ob- 
served. The most common, especially for 
retaining walls, was ordinary pirca using 
stones of medium and uniform size and faced 
on the outside. A more elaborate form makes 
use of alternating rows of thick and thin 
stones, similar to the type described in con- 
nection with Nunamarea. Because of the 
heavy cover of vegetation it is impossible 
to estimate accurately the number of house 
outlines, but the extent of the site area now 
covered with stone work indicates that it 
Was once occupied by a moderately large 
population. Clearmg and excavation would 
be necessary to show the ground plan ‘and 
the true extent of the site. 


54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Canta II also consists of a series of con- 
centric circular terraces around a natural 
hilltop about 60 meters in height. It is much 
smaller than Canta I, the lowest terrace 
level being only about 300 meters in diameter. 
The retaining walls of the terraces are of 
ordinary uniform pirca faced on the outside 
only, but a large number of completely 
finished rectangular building stones were ob- 
served on the various levels, presumably the 
remains of structures that have since been 
torn down to provide stones for more recent 
building. The only remaining structures on 
the terrace levels were circular walls 3 to 4 
meters in diameter and about 1 meter in 
height. These are the outlines of the house 
type most commonly found in Central Pataz. 
Canta III is a slightly smaller version of 
Canta IT, occupying another hilltop on the 
same ridge. 


PUEBLO VIEJO SOBRE PARCOYCITO 

On the ridgetop dividing Chilia drainage 
from the Parcoycito and Queros valleys there 
is a suecession of habitation sites, fortresses, 
and pyramids. Seven of these sites were ex- 
amined in 1949. The highest and most east- 
erly is Pueblo Viejo, located at an altitude of 
about 3,800 meters on the ridge between 
the headwaters of the Rio Quishuar and the 
Rio Parcoycito. It can be reached from Chilia 
by taking either of the northern mule trails 
toward La Vina, since these trails rejoin in 
order to cross the pass into the valley of the 
Parcoycito. At this pass, about 15 km from 
Chilia by either trail, a rough path can be 
seen branching off to the eastward and fol- 
lowing the height of land up the ridge. This 
trail passes through the site of Pueblo Viejo 
after a climb of about 3 km from the pass. 

The site consists of a dwelling area on the 
high puna surrounded by defense works. 
As the ridge rises eastward from the pass the 
ascent is steep and unbroken until a small 
pot of land is reached. From this point 
eastward for about 1 km the ridge ceases to 
climb and swings in a wide semicircular bow 
to the south. Within the bow to the north 
of the ridge and about 20 meters below it at 
its lowest pomt there is a relatively flat 
sheltered area measuring perhaps 400 by 
200 meters and covered by the remains of 
the principal dwelling area. The point at the 


western limit of the site is terraced in the 
style of Canta II, and the ridge top is ter- 
raced and covered with house outlines of the 
round type met at Canta II as well as rect- 
angular houses about 2 meters in width by 
4 meters in length. 

In the dwelling area itself there are two 
principal types of structure. The most com- 
mon are circular enclosures about 20 to 30 
meters in diameter having outside walls 1 to 
2 meters in height (Fiz. 7, d). Within these 
enclosures there are stone walls outlining 
smaller circular buildings 3 to 4 meters in 
diameters. These are irregularly placed, oc- 
casionally having part of a wall im common 
or partly depending on the wall of the larger 
enclosure, but in general there is a small 
court or plaza in the center. In all there are 
10 to 14 enclosures of this type. The second 
type of structure in the dwelling area is a 
larger rectangular building with thick walls 
now 2 to 3 meters in height in some of the 
better preserved examples. The exact ground 
plan of these remains could not be discovered 
without removing the fallen rock and rubble 
that covers most of their location. It is also 
now impossible to tell whether this struc- 
ture represents a group of buildings or a 
single large one. 

To the north of the dwelling area and a 
little below it, there is a single wall running 
from east to west enclosing the area on the 
single side not enclosed by the ridge. This 
wall is about 800 meters in length and about 
2 meters high. Eastward along the ridge 
about 1 km from the dwelling area there are 
further defense walls. These cross the ridge 
transversely, protecting the site from attack 
directed down the ridge from the heights 
(Fig. 8, d). From west to east this system 
contains three elements—a wall 1.5 meters 
high, a wall 4 meters high followed by a 
ditch 3 meters deep, and a wall 2 meters 
high followed by a ditch 2 meters deep. 
Unlike the northern defense wall nearer the 
dwelling area, the southeast walls are em- 


bankments perhaps 2 meters wide made of 


the earth piled up in the construction of the 
defense ditches or moats associated with 
them. The embankments are faced with a 
vertical retaining wall on the west. side, 
away trom the village. These walls are rough 
pirca faced on the outside. Of the three walls, 


vou. 41, No. 2 


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waddn S9dU10D SUIMOUS ‘Sa]Olag SOT JO Jods, zeddn ‘Twa ysaaq ‘(M) 7fa7 vaddQ :z2e4Vq [wAyU. JO SMOIA PUB dINJooIYoIy—L “DIA 


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PATAZ, PERU 


Lo 


SITES 


ARCHEOLOGICAL 


NEW 


CURTIN 


Fespruary 1951 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


only the middle one extends for any distance 
down the sides of the ridge, in this case for 
about 1 km to the south. 

Within the site proper three types of con- 
struction were observed. Some of the houses 
on the ridgetop are made of uncut, unfaced 
pirca. The round groups within the dwelling 
area are similar except for facing and more 
careful workmanship. The rectangular build- 
ings within the dwelling area and the north- 
ern defense wall are constructed of large 
stones 30 cm or more in diameter inter- 
spersed with smaller flat stones. The large 
stones are not laid in regular courses, but 
placed evenly through the smaller construc- 
tion. In spite of the similarity of this stone 
work to the alternate courses of large and 
small stones found at other sites, only the 
uncoursed type was found at Pueblo Viejo. 


LOS PEROLES DE HUAMPO 

Passing from the site of Pueblo Viejo 
sobre Parcoycito to the westward along the 
ridgetop, the next site is Los Peroles de 
Huampo. Los Peroles occupies a position 
to the west of the pass between Chilia and 
the valley of the Parcoycito corresponding 
to that of Pueblo Viejo to the east. Leaving 
the mule trail between Chilia and La Vina 
and following the ridgetop to the west the 
site is found at about 3,400 meters after a 
brief continuous ascent. Beyond Los Peroles 
the ridge drops again and splits into two 
branches. One fork swings to the southward 
around Chilia Valley, while the other forms 
the south watershed of the Parcoycito rising 
to the heights of Huayan. Between the two 
forks the Queros River drains a small valley 
and empties into the Marafion. 

At Los Peroles the most important ele- 
ments are two structures on the open sum- 
mit of the ridge, a platform (structure I) 
and a pyramidal group of concentric terraces 
(structure II). In addition there are a num- 
ber of defense works, house frames, and ter- 
races. Approaching the site from the east 
along the ridge a defense ditch about 1 meter 
deep lies transversely across the ridge. From 
this point three sloping terraces partially 
covered with round house frames of the 
familiar type rise to structure I, the more 
easterly of the two. This is a square stone- 


vou. 41, No. 2 


faced platform about 7 meters high and 14 
meters square. The sides of the square are 
oriented so that they face directly toward 
the four points of the compass, but this 1s not 
necessarily intentional, since the north and 
south sides are parallel to the line of the 
ridgetop. On the top of the square platform 
there are six round house outlines of the 
usual type. In addition, toward the north- 
west corner of the structure there is a vertical 
shaft about 1 meter square, the sides of 
which are lined with faced stone work. At 
present this is about 2 meters deep, but the 
bottom is loose earth and rubble mdicating 
that it may have been deeper. 

Structure II lies about 130 meters to the 
west of structure I. The two are separated 
by a dip in the ridgetop about 30 meters 
lower than the top of either. At the bottom 
of this dip a second transverse ditch about 
2 meters deep crosses the ridge. Above the 
dip to the west structure II rises in a series 
of three wall-supported terraces. The three 
retaining walls are each about 7 meters high, 
giving the whole a uniformity with the 7- 
meter height of structure I. Since the low- 
est of the retaining walls rises from a ter- 
race cut into the natural slope of the hill, 
there are four terrace levels in all. The three 
lower levels are concentric and elliptical be- 
ing roughly accommodated to the shape of 
the ridge—the fourth and highest alone be- 
ing nearly round. The whole structure meas- 
ured at the lowest level is 95 meters in length 
by 25 meters in width. The terraces are not 
completely symmetrical. Since the eastern 
slope is less steep than the western, the ter- 
raced levels on that side average 16 meters 
in width, while the same levels to the west 
measure only 11 meters each. The three 
lower terraces are uniformly 3 meters in 
width toward the north and south, giving 
the structure its elliptical shape. The central 
round level is 13 meters in diameter. All the 
retaining walls are constructed of faced 
stone, roughly rectangular, coursed, and hav- 
ing alternate courses wider than the rest. 
About 50 cm below the top of the highest 
wall there is a cornice formed by one course 
of stones that projects about 10 em from 
the wall (Fig. 7, a). 

As with structure I, all the terrace levels 
show the remains of house circles varying 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU a7 


Fic. 8.—Architecture and views of central Pataz: Upper left (a), North wall of principal strue- 
ture, Chareoy; wpper right (b), west side, upper story, Matibamba chulpa; lower left (ec), house rem- 
nants at Chareoy looking north, heights of Huayan in the distance; lower right (@), eastern faced 
earthworks and defense ditches at Pueblo Viejo. 


58 JOURNAL OF THE 


in number from four on the highest level to 
about 14 on the lower levels. No rectan- 
gular house outlines were observed. In the 
middle of one of the house circles on the 
third terrace level there is a vertical shaft 
similar to that observed on structure I. At 
first this was taken for a treasure-seekers’ 
hole, since it was not lined with stone. A 
closer examination, however, showed that it 
connects with the remains of a horizontal 
gallery entering the base of the retaining 
wall just above the second level. 

Associated with these two principal struc- 
tures there is a small village of round houses 
on the side of the ridge a few hundred meters 
to the southwest as well as a number of 
house circles on the ridge itself to the east 
and west of the site. In addition a large 
group of terraces and houses were observed 
farther to the west between Los Peroles 
and Charcoy, indicating that virtually the 
entire ridge top was once occupied. The 
center of this group is a terraced hilltop 
about 3 kilometers west of Los Peroles. There 
is no known local name for this site. 


CHARCOY 

Continuing along the crest of the ridge 
past this last site, the ridge drops steeply 
forming a pass. Through this pass there is a 
trail connecting Chilia village with the valley 
of Queros. Beyond the pass the ridge rises 
very steeply for about 3 km. There is no 
trail, but animals can travel fairly easily 
along the treeless summit, forcing riders to 
dismount only occasionally in especially 
steep or rocky slopes. Over this rise the 
ridge slowly bends to the south, until its 
direction is almost north and south. Charcoy 
occupies the highest point after the new 
ascent, being at about 3,700 meters, or al- 
most as high as Pueblo Viejo and a good 
deal higher than Los Peroles. The site is 
clearly visible from Chilia village, since the 
higher walls stand out against the skyline. 

The remains of Charcoy are very exten- 
sive, though many of the walls are now noth- 
ing but scattered pieces of cut stone (Fig. 
8, c). Along 500 meters of the ridgetop, which 
is 500 to 100 meters wide and relatively flat 
at this point, there are about 60 houses in 
good condition. Of these around 80 percent 
are of the round type. The remainder are 
rectangular of the type found on the ridge 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


at Pueblo Viejo. Some of the house circles 
are arranged within enclosures on a plan 
similar to that at Pueblo Viejo. 

At the center of the ruined area the cor- 
ner of one structure shows the most careful 
stone work observed in Pataz. The only 
remains of a larger building, however, are 
a corner and two side walls extending about 
7 meters in one direction and 12 meters in 
the other. The longer of these two sides is 
oriented in a general north-south direction, 
but again this is the direction of the ridge. 
Inside this building there are the remains 
of two rooms, each about 1.3 meters square. 
These are side by side along the east wall 
with doorways opening toward the inside 
of the building toward the west. In this 
area the stone and rubble of fallen walls 
make it impossible to trace the ground plan 
without excavation. At one time the stand- 
ing portion must have been part of a much 
larger building. Even at present the wall is 
higher than 5 meters at its highest point. 
The construction of inside and outside walls 
is identical. The walls are between 68.5 and 
76 em thick constructed of a red clay and 
rubble fill faced on both sides with cut rock 
in alternate courses of large and small stones 
(Fig. 8, a). 

A cursory survey of the site revealed only 
three examples of decorated stone, but 
among many thousands of cut stones in the 
area there are probably a number of others. 
Two of these stones were slabs about 10 
em thick and 70 cm square bearing an in- 
cised rectilinear geometric design. They 
could have been either an individual decora- 
tion or a portion of a larger motif running 
along a number of facing slabs. The third 
decorated stone bore a single incised ser- 
pentine line having nine reverses of direc- 
tion. This might represent a snake or be a 
merely decorative line. 


CORRALES DE PIEDRAS 


Six kilometers farther south along the 
same ridge from Charcoy is the site of Cor- 
rales de Piedras. This can be reached either 
by the ridgetop route, or by going directly 
from Chilia to Hacienda ‘“‘Hallaca,” where 
a guide can be secured to point out a more 
direct route up the ridge. The latter route 
is more difficult, but shorter. 


Fespruary 1951 


Corrales de Piedras has a general appear- 
ance and location similar to Charcoy. It is 
also situated on the top of the ridge, and its 
principal features are a number of terraced 
hilltops and dwelling areas scattered along 
the ridge for about 1,500 meters. The area 
is larger than that of Charcoy, but settle- 
ment does not seem to have been as dense. 
Corrales de Piedras’ altitude of 3,300 meters 
is also sufficiently lower than Charcoy to be 
out of the completely treeless area. Parts of 
the site are covered by thick underbrush, 
although this sort of vegetation does not 
normally grow so high. The site is clearly 
visible from Chilia village and is especially 
marked by the brush, the only vegetation 
other than grasses that appears on the sky- 
line to the northeast. 

Approaching Corrales de Piedras from the 
north, the first evidence of former habita- 
tion is a very elaborate system of defense 
walls and ditches constructed in the same 
manner as those to the east of Pueblo Viejo. 
The principal difference at Corrales de 
Piedras is the remains of a portal through 
one of the walls. Here there is an opening 
about 1 meter wide with an upright stone 
jamb about 50 cm in diameter and | meter 
high on either side. Immediately beyond the 
wall system is the first of two points of land 
terraces in the usual manner. Between these 
the brush covers a slight saddle in the ridge, 
obscuring the layout of a large number of 
partially ruined structures of faced prrca. 
Beyond the saddle the ridge rises again 
through a series of four well-preserved ter- 
races to the second high point. The levelled 
top of this point, as well as the terraces and 
the hillsides to the east and west of the 
ridge show the remains of a number of round 
houses similar to those at Charcoy and Los 
Peroles. Beyond the second point the ridge 
slopes down rather steeply through a series 
of nine terraces to a very small platform 
about 5 meters in diameter. These terraces 
also have the remains of house circles. From 
the last platform the ridge slopes downward 
so abruptly that it is only passable by ani- 
mals with the greatest difficulty. After about 
2 km this slope breaks into an impassable 
series of cliffs, marking the end of the ridge 
to the south. 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 59 


HALLACA 


A small point of land just above the cliffs 
to the south of Corrales de Piedras is the 
site of a number of concentric stone faced 
terraces at about 3,000 meters altitude. This 
small point is so isolated on the steep hill- 
side that the use of its terraces for purely 
agricultural purposes seems unlikely. It may 
have served as an outpost for Corrales de 
Piedras or as a small fortress to control 
traffic over one of the trails passing from 
the valley of Chilia to the Marafion. This 
trail now passes through a small natural 
gateway between the site and the main slope 
of the ridge. The site is clearly visible from 
the Hacienda “‘Hallaca’”’ buildings which lie 
about 2 km to the northwest directly below 
Corrales de Piedras. Hallaca is reached from 
Chilia in two hours by mule by turning 
off the westerly trail to La Vifia about 6 
km from Chilia. 


LOS REPRESOS 


Los Represos is much lower in altitude 
than the ridgetop sites discussed above, but 
its general characteristics are the same. It is 
located at about 2,000 meters on a short 
ridge extending into the Marafion Valley 
between the Rio de Ruyabamba on the 
south and the Maranon itself on the north 
and west. Los Represos is reached from 
Chilia in about four hours by mule over a 
good trail that follows the northern side of 
the Ruyabamba Cafion to the orchards of 
Matibamba at the bank of the Maranon. 
At the point where this trail crosses a ridge 
from the drainage of the Ruyabamba to that 
of the Maranon the site is seen on the trail 
itself and toward the west down the ridge. 

The local name, Los Represos, comes from 
the site’s distinctive feature. There are two 
depressions or plazas in the top of the ridge 
about 16 meters in diameter and lined with 
stone to the depth of about 1 meter. These 
are thought to be water reservoirs connected 
with an irrigation system for the Maranon 
Valley, especially for the site of Matibamba, 
which lies directly over the ridge to the 
north. They seem rather small to store any 
considerable quantity of water, and no other 
irrigation works were noticed in the area. 
At present there are no sources of water 
within 5 or 6 km of the site. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


In addition to the two “represos”’, there 
are three other structures on the ridge. Two 
of these are single level square stone faced 
platforms about 3 meters in height. The 
third is a large rectangular platform a little 
more than 3 meters high with a square plat- 
form of the same height on the top, giving 
a pyramidal effect. All retaming and lining 
walls are of average uniform pzirca. The 
double platform contains a large treasure- 
seekers’ hole in the middle of the highest 
level. On the second level there was a small 
round low platform about 3 meters in diame- 
ter with a square shaft about 15 meters in 
width in the center. 


MATIBAMBA 


Following the trail over the ridge and 
down into the Maranon to the north of Los 
Represos there are a series of hairpin turns 
leading to the canon floor. Here, along the 
edge of the river at 1,320 meters, is the 
small settlement of Matibamba and an ir- 
rigated area in which tropical fruits are 
raised. Above the irrigated area for about 
500 meters and extending along the valley 
for the same distance are the ruins of Mati- 
bamba. Throughout the site area there are 
the remains of low walls and terraces cover- 
ing the arid hillside. Beeause of lack of water 
en route from Chilia, the presence of veruga, 
very high temperatures, and other special 
problems imposed by the location of. the 
site, we were unable to make the full survey 
that the area deserves. 

The most interesting structures at Mati- 
bamba are the remains of five chulpas in the 
western part of the site area about 250 meters 
from the Maranon. One of these is almost 
perfectly preserved, although any burials it 
may once have contained are now gone. The 
well-preserved chulpa is a small two-story 
building—a square room or tower set on top 
of a round base. The base is constructed in 
the form of a semi-circle on the very steep 
hillside, the top being flush with the hill 
while the lower northern side is about 3 
meters high. The diameter from east to west 
is approximately 6.2 meters, while the radius 
from north to south is 4.3 meters. The con- 
struction of the lower walls is a rubble and 
earth fill with stone facing. The facmg 
stones are of varying size and are not 


vou. 41, No. 2 


coursed. This wall varies in thickness from a 
little more than 1 meter to more than 2 
meters. Within the round lower structure 
there are two chambers entered from a small 
opening at the west corner. The northern 
and larger of these is in the shape of a half- 
moon about 3.4 meters in length and 1.7 
meters in width having a maximum height 
of 1.25 meters. An opening into the smaller 
southern chamber is found at the northeast 
side of the larger, opposite the opening to 
the outside. The inner chamber is rectangu- 
lar, about 3.2 meters in length by 96 em in 
width with a maximum height of about 75 
cm. At the eastern end of this chamber there 
is a window roughly 60 em square. Both of 
the lower chambers have corbelled roofing 
which provides the floor for the structure 
above, additional support for this roof being 
supplied by the wall separating them. 

The upper story of the chulpa is a boxlike 
building 2.84 meters square (Fig. 8, b), hav- 
ing a single window on the eastern side 58 
em square about 60 em above the ground. 
The walls of this building are roughly 37 cm 
thick, being constructed in a pattern of three 
courses which repeats itself three times in 
the 2-meter height of the walls. This begins 
at the bottom with a course of very large 
faced stones in the neighborhood of 30 em in 
height placed side by side but filled with 
smaller. stones where necessary because of 
their irregular shape. Above this course 1s an 
area of flat stones, also faced, typical of the 
small stone layers of the alternating large 
and small courses found at Charecoy. This 
layer fills in and around the large lower 
layer making a relatively level surface on 
which there is a course of large flat stones 
measuring about 12 em by 40 em. The pat- 
tern is then repeated with a new layer of the 
very large irregular stones. The placement 
of the window and the height of the pattern 
are so arranged that the bottom of the 
window and the lintel over it are supplied 
by consecutive courses of the long flat va- 
riety. On the whole the pattern is followed 
consistently on all four sides, but there are 
occasional irregularities. The roof of the 
upper level is also corbelled, bemg 70 cm 
thick and constructed of large flat stones 
very irregularly placed without mortar. 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 61 


Farther to the west there are three ad- 
ditional chulpas in a very bad state of dis- 
repair. These are placed in a row on the hill- 
side, one below the other. A fifth chulpa lies 
some distance up the hill to the south of the 
well-preserved example, and a closer exami- 
nation of the ruins will probably reveal 
more. 

Although the well-preserved chulpa is on 
the unterraced hillside, 8 meters up hill there 
is an artificially leveled area about 10 by 3 
meters protected by a stone retaining wall 
on the upper side. On this level there are the 
remains of a rectangular structure. The only 
remaining wall in good condition is in the 
shape of an “‘L”’ about 2.7 meters high at the 
corner and 2 meters long toward either arm. 
This wall has a projecting corbel about 40 
em from the top. 

At the eastern end of the Matibamba 
ruins there is another wall in excellent pres- 
ervation. This appears to be the remains of 
a rectangular building about 6 meters high 
standing on an artificial terrace. This 
““glesia,”’ or temple, as it is called locally, 
appears to have once had two stories and in 
many respects to be similar to the large 
central structures at Charcoy and Pueblo 
Viejo. 


SITES SOUTH OF CHILIA VALLEY 


Matibamba is the last of the seven sites 
examined along the north rim of Chilia 
Valley. According to local reports and exami- 
nation from the distance there are fewer 
sites along the corresponding ridge to the 
south. The most prominent of these is Ush- 
cun (see map, Fig. 1), lying on the southern 
ridge overlooking the Ruyabamba opposite 
Corrales de Piedras on the north. Some stone 
sculpture and burials are reported there. 

Still farther to the south, the extensive 
ruins of Colpan are found at the height of a 
pass between the valleys of the Aullobamba 
and the Nahuinbamba. These ruins consist 
of buildings and terraces similar to those 
examined in detail. Another similar group of 
ruins is Huancuy, found about 15 km south 
of La Paccha on a high point ringed with 
concentric terraces. This ruin is located just 
above Cachipicza on the valley floor and 
seems designed to protect the pass where the 


present trail crosses the shoulder of the 
mountain into the valley of the Nahuin- 
bamba. This site was visited by Raimondi in 
1860.° 


PIRURO 
To the north of the valley of Chilia, the 
site of Piruro presents a classic example of 
the hilltop structures found in Pataz (Fig. 
7, c). It les about 500 meters to the north- 


.west of the mule trail from La Vina to 


Alpamarea at the height of a small pass 
about 3,200 meters in elevation immediately 
before the final descent into the Parcoy 
valley. The situation is very striking for its 
location, giving a clear view up the valleys 
of the Ariabamba and Yurayaca as well as a 
large part of the valley of the Parcoy. Ap- 
proaching by way of La Vina, Piruro is 
visible from the trail for several hours before 
actually arriving at the site. 

The structure itself consists of a large oval 
platform about 90 meters long by 50 meters 
wide. The sides of the platform now slope 
down to the hilltop about 8 meters below, 
but they may once have been faced with 
stone. On top of the platform there is a 
truncated pyramid about 8 meters high, 
being roughly 12 meters in diameter at the 
top. There are some sections of former re- 
taining walls, but i most places these have 
been removed for modern buildings or walls. 
On the west side of the pyramid, where the 
walls are best preserved, there are indications 
that the sides once rose in four steps about 
3 meters wide. All the remaining walls are of 
normal pirca construction with no pattern 
of large and small stones. Although a large 
number of well-cut rectangular stones were 
found near the site, none of these were in 
place. On the eastern side a treasure-seekers’ 
excavation has completely removed a large 
part of each level. 


PARCOY VALLEY 


In addition to Piruro there are other sites 
in the vicinity of the Parcoy valley, though 
they were not examined in detail by the ex- 
pedition in 1949. Rumatambo, overlooking 
the Parcoy near the Hacienda “El Tra- 


3 Rarmonpr, ANronro. Hl Peru 5: 125. Lima, 


1874-1913. 


62 
piche,” is one of these. The portion visible 
from the valley below is a retaming wall 
system circling a hilltop at about 3,100 
meters in elevation. Santisteban is reported 
on the ridge between the rivers Yurayaca 
and Ariabamba but was not examined. 

Along the south bank of the Lagarpampa 
or Sauce River, which empties into the 
Marafion 1 km north of La Vina, there is a 
series of parallel agricultural terraces, for- 
merly watered by an irrigation canal bring- | 
ing water from the upper Lagarpampa. In- 
all, about 40 levels can be distinguished 
along the slopes above the Maranon. These 
are not only the most extensive system of 
terracing observed in the Pataz area but also 
the only system of parallel terraces, the 
others being only the concentric type. They 
are, perhaps, noteworthy as the only possible 
remains of Inca occupation, the other fea- 
tures of architecture, ceramics, and sculpture 
being clearly non-Inca in character. 


HUILCAYACO CAVES 


In addition to the ceremonial and habita- 
tion sites visited, investigations were made 
at two burial sites, both caves. The largest 
of these was visited by Raimondi (loc. cit.) at 
the same time he visited Huancuy. Continu- 
ing beyond Huancuy on the trail toward 
Nahuinbamba the cave is located between 
the mule trail and the Rio de Nahuinbamba 
about 2 km past the site of Huancuy. It lies 
on the side of a very steep bluff about 3 km 
in a direct line from Huaylillas at an eleva- 
tion of about 2,800 meters. Although the 
cave 1s difficult to find without local assist- 
ance, a guide can be secured in any nearby 
village by asking for the cueva de los gentiles. 
At the mouth the cave is only 1 meter wide 
by 50 cm high, the entrance slopmg down- 
ward at an angle of about 20 degrees. Once 
inside it is somewhat bigger and finally at 
the depth of about 15 meters there is a room 
large enough for standing upright. Various 
side passages open in several directions from 
the central tunnel. In all parts of the cave, 
but especially in the first large room, there 
are numerous human skeletons. The cave 
shows signs of having been frequently 
entered in the past, but some of the skeletons 
were still partly articulated. No artifacts 
were found. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


SHAHUINDO 


The second burial caves examined are 
located on Hacienda “El Trapiche” not far 
from the site of Piruro. The caves are in the 
steep cliffs of Shahuindo about 1 km north- 
west of the hacienda buildings and 100 
meters higher in elevation. They can be 
reached from the hacienda without the aid 
of ropes. Three caves open from a narrow 
off-set in the cliffs, bearing 308° magnetic 
from Trapiche Viejo. From south to north 
they have been numbered I, IJ, and III. 
Cave I has an entrance | meter in width by 
20 cm in height. The floor is covered with un- 
articulated human bones mixed with earth. 
The whole has the appearance of having once 
been excavated and later replaced. At pres- 
ent the cave can be entered about 3 meters. 
No artifacts were found, but a thorough ex- 
cavation of the floor might uncover much 
more than our brief examination revealed. 
Caves IT and III are similar in size and con- 
dition. They are located 10 and 12 meters 
respectively to the north of cave I. 

Other burial caves were reported in the 
Pataz area but were not visited. The burial 
caves at Ushcun are mentioned above. Caves 
were also reported near the headwaters of 
the Quishuar about 10 km to the north- 
northeast of Chilia village. Other caves are 
supposed to exist in the southeast slope of 
Nunamarea bluff, but could not be found in 
1949. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


Within the area under consideration the 
following types of structure occur: 


(a) Series of concentric terraces ringing a hill- 
top. 

(b) Artificial platforms with sloping sides and 
with vertical stone faced sides. 

(c) Artificial platforms superimposed in the 
form of a stepped truneated pyramid three or 
four layers in height. 

(d) Earth embankments faced with stone ac- 
companied by moats. 

(e) Rectangular houses. 

(f) Round houses about 1 m. high and 3 to 4 
m. in diameter. 3 

(g) Large rectangular buildings up to 5 m. in 
height. 

(h) Depressed plazas or reservoirs. 

(7) Galleries. 

(7) Stone lined shafts. 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 63 
(k) Large circular enclosures surrounding jn Pataz, but this type, though uncommon, 


groups of circular houses. 
(l) Chulpas. 


Five general types of masonry were ob- 
served in the Pataz region: 


(@) Unfaced rough pirca. 

(6) Faced pirca built with average uniform 
stones. 

(c) Faced pirca built with large and small 
stones in alternate courses. 

(d) Faced pirca of large stones placed at ran- 
dom throughout a wall of smaller stones. 

(e) Faced pirca having a three-course repeti- 
tive pattern. 


These masonry types are used either in 
walls completely of stone or as facing for 
clay and rubble walls or in retaining walls. 
Two additional features of the local stone- 
work are the use of decorative corbels near 
the top of walls and of the corbeled roof. 

Although a reconnaissance survey of this 
sort can not be comprehensive, even for an 
area as small as central Pataz, it allows 
limited conclusions about the type of archi- 
tecture and the extent of archaeological re- 
mains to be found in the trans-Maranon 
region of Peru. But these conclusions must 
be very tentative, since the areas immedi- 
ately surrounding Pataz on all sides have not 
been explored by archaeologists, even at the 
survey level. Particularly the southern part 
of Pataz, the provinces of Maranon and 
Pomabamba, and the general area between 
central Pataz and Chavin de Huantar merit 
a careful examination. Large ruins are re- 
ported at Tarrija and Uchos in southern 
Pataz and at Llayno near the town of Poma- 
bamba. Even surveys in these areas would 
help to clear up many problems connected 
with the appearance in Pataz of traits associ- 
ated with the cultures of the Callejon de 
Huaylas. 

Among these traits, only to mention the 
most obvious, are stone-lined galleries, 
houses that were probably two-storied, and 
emphasis on the feline motif in stone sculp- 
ture.’ The preponderance of round house out- 
les about 1 meter high and 3 meters in 
diameter as the ancient dwelling-house type 
in Pataz calls for special mention. The author 
observed nothing of this sort in current use 


4 BENNETT, WENDELL C. The North Highlands 
of Peru. New York, 1944. 


is still used in parts of the Callejon de 
Huaylas. In these present-day buildings, the 
base is a rough stone wall approximately the 
same height and diameter as those in Pataz, 
while the roof is a conical thatching sup- 
ported by a vertical pole in the center, 4 to 5 
meters high. 

On the other hand, the Matibamba chul- 
pas present a problem that must be left till 
further exploratory work is done. This type 
of square boxlike structure on a round base 
is striking, yet no examples have been re- 
ported in the surrounding regions, that is to 
say, at Chavin, in the Callejon, at Marca 
Huamachuco, or in the region of Cajamarca. 

On a more general plane, the whole area 
of Pataz seems to have been formerly more 
heavily populated than it is today, even if it 
is assumed that all sites in the valley of 
Chila were not occupied at the same time. 
Of the sites visited only Matibamba and 
Lagarpampa are not equipped with defense 
works or located in easily defensible posi- 
tions. Several of the sites, notably Charcoy 
and Pueblo Viejo and Huayan, are located 
at almost 4,000 meters elevation, far above 
the arable area and far above any visible 
source of water. This raises the question of 
the prehistoric political situation. Against 
whom were these defenses built? A tentative 
answer is suggested by Garcilaso’s state- 
ment that the pre-Incaic boundary between 
Huacrachuco and Chachapoyas was found 
just to the south of Pias.° If this is true, the 
long valley of the Parecoy and Alpamarea 
Rivers forms a natural frontier. The heights 
to the south and west of the Parcoy, then, 
would be the natural defense line of 
Huacrachuco. It is possible that the chain of 
fortifications to the north of Chilia valley 
housed only garrisons. This would explain 
both the relative density of population on 
this ridge and the inaccessibility of the sites. 
Following this hypothesis only the sites on 
or near the valley floor like the Canta sites 
and Nunamarea would be economically sup- 
ported by the production of Chilia valley. 
The garrison sites could have been sup- 
ported by a much larger area. 

5 pp LA VEGA, Garcruaso (El Inca). Comen- 


tartos reales: pt. 1, bk. 8, chap. 1. Buenos Aires, 
LO45. 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Check list of salinity tolerance of post-Paleozoic fossil Ostra- 
coda.! I. G. Sonn, U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by J.S. Williams.) 


Among microfossils Ostracoda are con- 
sidered second only to Foraminifera as hori- 
zon markers. Their utilitarian value is en- 
hanced by the fact that they occur in both 
fresh and salt water, whereas the Forami- 
nifera are confined to salty waters. Although 
certain genera of ostracodes show remarkable 
tolerances to variation in salinity, none of the 
species belonging to those genera has to date 
been recorded as tolerant to both strictly 
fresh and strictly marine environments. 
Some species can live in water that grades 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


from fresh to brackish; others tolerate brack- 
ish to marine water. Many genera and species 
are reported to be confined to each one of the 
several types of salinity environments. 

The following table records the inferred 
salinity tolerance of 80 forms included in 
36 genera. The species are those for which 
salinity habitat is specifically mentioned in 
the literature. The table is compiled as an 
aid to interpreting the depositional environ- 
ment of sediments containing post-Paleozoic 
Ostracoda. It is the result of an objective 
survey of the literature and consequently 
may include some erroneous inferences, 
which future investigations will rectify. 


LIST OF POST-PALEOZOIC FOSSIL OSTRACODES FOR WHICH A DEFINITE SALINITY HABITAT 
HAS BEEN INFERRED 


Type of Water 
Ostracode Remarks Reference 
| Fresh Brackish | Marine | 
A\TOMOCHLOCTOs ctdecosccdcecesgwe oo | x 21 
AVS HORUAONO Ahr Se RRS | x | 21 
JXOORCWG WUCVORMUUS: 65% 66 656+ 556555% x | Shallow warm water. 20 - 
IZHMOCHOUS a's dosdesboedaooesaobot x | 17, 24 
1B, SOMMUGHO > coreccddevcgocgoou0s 6 x Shallow water. 6 
Bythocythere stmplex.............. x 19 
COO CUNO). 5 o%000cbbcos8Sb6> x x 22 
Ci, WOROMCNSIScs  sheabenssabouses xX 22 
One ONDESTU Naame ee te REE oe x x 11 
CUT CUL OR Pn aR aE | x 4 
Capridea eS ireee e e xK x | Thin shells fresh, thick shells) 4, 10, 15 
| brackish (10). 
CECUN net ce eee x x | Shghtly saline (1). a2?) 
Cs. GROOWOSO 9. secc0coscobeadsadoc x 1 
C. ganulosa var. fasciculata.......| x More saline than next below.) 1 
C. granulosa var. paucigranulata. . x Less saline than above. 1 
OF (NOM ic s dees ool Aga oaten x 22 
Cpu ClOhd ei eee aa eee ree>< x | Slightly saline (1); fresh 1, 22 
; } | water (22)> 
Cu prudevseernine cee ee | >< 15 
Cypridopsis compressa............ lee | 8 
Cuprionenbiustoviia eee |< 1 
Cionsepunbeckenstse ener ex 22 
Co DUGG so oeaddasbocadasdsooh 5 hoes | 22 
(SL MIRG saccurs oeamitets ao Oein Ae wre ae eae | x x | Marine-brackish (3, 7); By Oy UA, 
| marine (12, 23). 23 
CM CON UGS AE eee x | Shallow sea. 18 
CRIicrUs pAtane Aerie ene 2 x < 7 
(OE GMPOY ONAL. Sra maaes Cas cae O ETS OE xX | Shallow water. 6 
Go OUC HUGS re eprhereals aac hole meee < 19 
(Ol, POMUPUG Ohno be Y aN bee SHS 5 bes SK | Sk 29 
OCRULANISUCNS ee er ee x | 22 
Ci, WUDOROCOUGHG ss bonsteb sogacessods | 19 
GR niscenalisten tere srry Ce ee Sey: | a 22 
CONOR GIS He Gene nye fae nena ott Sk x << | | 16 
C. convexa var. sarmatica......... x | | 138, 24 
CO, OPMGWISSOME 0000600 ec00ceb0er08 | | | > | Shallow sea. | 18 
C', GOPDAUWM MGs wcocsccob nace. oral | ex | 22 
Ciythereula esaa rue Caer re teenie | | XX | Typical marine. 17 
(O15 TRUCHWSUCTO 5) oS ecobe oa eda esate < | | x | Shallow sea. 18 
| | \ 


Fepruary 1951 SOHN: SALINITY TOLERANCE OF OSTRACODA 65 


LIST OF POST-PALEOZOIC FOSSIL OSTRACODES FOR WHICH A DEFINITE SALINITY HABITAT 
HAS BEEN INFERRED—Continued 


Type of Water 
Ostracode Remarks Reference 
Fresh Brackish Marine 
Cytherelloidea williamsoniana..... x< Shallow sea. 6 
COMCOPUCEDS SoC aOR EERE cee x x Shallow marine, estuarine. Be, Wy We, 
1 z 
C'-. QUID DTROUC AS oerais Hels Oe cio ae x 22 
CO. CUBGFEDss0 25 pa ee x< x< 29 
Co. HUE eee x< 14 
C' LUACORED Les SES | x 24 
GPR GUGOMGGLG «4-0 Pa a Se. | x | Shallow water. 6 
Ce URUINGPE 55 Ce ee x x phalley sea, temperate zone | 11, 20 
20) 
C's enlits (CO), OOH aaa ere ne eae x Fresh-water influence. 9 
C. (PONG. soe ee eee ee x 29 
C's. IOPOSG. 5 Re ee a ee ee < 5 
C. (ORISO Ware, (MUOMANPSS 75a s len ee x 13 
C'. WON CCSOMICHIOS 2S Hahn oe olen oe x x 14 
CCH LCPUCTARS ES = i ete ant nae en x | Typical marine. 17 
(Ci. WiMiCDTQUS coed a oS a Ces x x Fresh or slightly brackish. 11 
Cl, UACSUUCT. 1nd eee ee ote ate x Fresh or slightly brackish. 11 
COMMCTODICROR. o 5% besa ee ere | x x Marine-brackish (3); typical | 3, 17 
marine (17). 
C's SDocere’s A Gentes eae eee x < | Marine or estuarine. 22 
C. elongata-concentricum.......... x Shallow water. 6 
Cl. BURGCMCULD ¢. oS ene oad Hei ae x Shallow sea, temperate zone. | 20 
CWEUOCPUPG» cic 2.ava cle eR aes meee x x 16 
Darwinula leguminella............ x 1 
1D), USGSSCOD c % ace Shea Ee x x Hither fresh or brackish. 12 
Bii COVA Oas cp cme eee o ore ae be eee x iG 
Herpetocypris aequalis............ x 7 
INT OURG 0-2 act, 55 cubes ER ee x x Shallow marine or estuarine. | 7, 24 
Inmnicythere zindorfi............. x x 14 
ococonchapelluptca... 5.42. 4.5. x 5 
Macrocypris horatiana............ x 22 
MT =. SCG DIGE 3.6 siete Sed ee ee x Shallow water. 6 
Waciodentumapecce) seyae os atcra in x x 10 
INICSUG COMPARE POU hc ooe ne Gc eee, x Typical marine. 17 
Onthonoiacyinene. x 15 
IPO CCUFOUPIS ssa es SoA ee x Typical marine. 17 
WACO GUUREGRON Meer ieleas cs Ne Bia x Typical marine. 7 
Pseudocythere. . ee a Tae x Typical marine. 17 
Rhinocypris scabra var. hamata...| X 22 
Scabriculocypris acanthoides...... x 22 
ISMECCTASTE SHI Nal iay sure ma tt x ) 2 
So URGUTLOUUDS . cE dease>debeagses Js x 22 
SOMGOGIWWS s2 5 .000505e000000b 50 x Shallow lagoon, approaching | 24 
littoral. 
Thaumatocypris bettenstaedti...... x Up to 200 meters deep. lees 
WT 5 WEG x8. ae sie ia Rae eee x Shallow water. | 2 


LITERATURE CITED 
(1) Anprerson, F. W. Phasal deposition in the (4) Bosqurt, J. A. H. Description des entomos- 


middle Purbeck beds of Dorset. Ann. Rep. tracés fossiles des terrains tertiaires de la 

Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sei. 99 (for 1931): 3878-380. France et de la Belgique. Mém. Cour. et 

1932. Sav. Etrang. Acad. Roy. Belg. 24 (pt. 3) 
(2) Bartenstern, Heitmutru. Thaumatocypris 142 pp. 1852. 

bettenstaedti n. sp. aus dem nordwestdeut- (5) Brapy, G.S.; Crosskny, H. W.; and Roserr- 

schen Lias zeta. Senckenbergiana 30: 95-98. SON, Davin. A monograph of the post-Ter 

1949. tiary Entomostraca of Scotland (including 
(3) Bont, AtBerr. Beitrag zur Stratigraphie species from England and Treland). Paleon- 

und Paleontologie der Tertiaren ablagerungen togr. Soe. London: 232 pp., 15 pls. IS74. 

in Ostlichen Mainzer Becken. Abh.Seneckenb. (6) CaarpmMan, Frepertck. Foraminifera and 


naturf. Ges. 41: 65-113. 1928. Ostracoda from the Cretaceous of East Pon- 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


doland, S. Africa. Ann. South African Mus. 

4: 221-237. 1904. 

Report on samples of surface Ter- 
tiary rocks and a bore sample containing 
Ostracoda from Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Queensland 46 (6): 66-71. 1935. 

(8) CorNvuEL, J. Description des nouveaux fos- 
siles microscopiques du terrain inférieur du 
département de la Haute-Marne. Mém. Soc. 
Géol. France, sér. 2, 3 (pt. 1): 241-246. 1848. 

“(9) Grint, R. von. Mikropaldontologie wnd 
Stratigraphie in dem Tertiaren Becken und 
der Flyschzone von Osterreich. Proc. 18th 
Int. Geol. Congr. Pal. Union for 1948, pt. 15: 
51-60. 1950. 

(10) HitrERMANN, HEINRICH. 
nattirlichen Brackwasser. Erdél und Kohle, 
Jahrg 2 (1): 4-8, 8 figs. 1949. 

(11) Jones, T. R. Notes on the Entomostraca. 
In E. Forbes’ ‘On the Tertiary Fluvio-ma- 
rine Formation of the Isle of Wight.’? Mem. 
Great Britain Geol. Suryv.: 157-158. 1856. 

On the Rhaetic and some Liassic 
Ostracoda of Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soe. London 50: 156-169. 1894. 

(13) KapraRENKO-CHERNOUSOVA, O. K. Upper 
Tertiary microfauna of the Nicopol manganese 
ore district (Ukraine). Journ. Geol. (Acad. 
Sci. Ukr. SSR. Inst. Geol.) 6 (1-2) : 199-223. 
1939. [In Russian; English summary, pp. 
221-223.] 

(14) Lirenenkiaus, E. Die Ostracoden des Main- 
zer Tertiarbeckens. Ber. Senckenb. naturf. 
Ges. 2: 3-70. 1905. 


Klassifikation der 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


(15) Martin, G. P. Ostracoden des norddeutschen 
Purbeck und Wealden. Senckenbergiana 22 
(5-6) : 275-361. 1940. 

(16) Méues, Gyuua. Die eozdinen Ostracoden der 
Umgebung von Budapest. Geologica Hunga- 
rica, ser. pal., 12: 3-56. 1936. 

Die ostracoden der Oberoligozéns der 
Umgebung von Budapest. Geologica Hunga- 
rica, ser. pal., 16: 95 pp. 1941. 

(18) Moreman, W. L. Fossil zones of the Eagle 
Ford of north Texas. Journ. Pal. 1: 89-101. 
1927. 

(19) Munroe, H. Studier of ner Gotlands sen- 
quartare historia. Sver. Geol. Unders., ser. 
Ca, no. 4: 213 pp. 1910. [English summary, 
pp. 181-206.] 

(20) StapNicHENKO, M. M. The Foraminifera 
and Ostracoda of the Marine Yegua of the 
type sections. Journ. Pal. 1: 221-248. 1927. 

(21) StzpHEenson, M. B. Miocene and Pliocene 
Ostracoda of the genus Cytheridea from Flo- 
rida. Journ. Pal. 12: 127-148. 1938. 

(22) SytvesteR-BRapLey, P. C. The Purbeck 
beds of Swindon. Proc. Geologists’ Assoc. 
London 51 (pt. 4): 349-872. 1940. 

(23) Terqurm, Oury. Les foraminiferes et les 
ostracodes du Fuller’s earth des environs de 
Varsovie. Mém. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 3, 
4: 91-107. 1886. 

(24) Zauanyt, B. Biosociologische Zusammen- 
hdnge im Neogenbecken des grossen Ungaris- 
chen Tiefebene. Jahresb. Ungar. Geol. Anst., 
1933-35, 4: 1621-1699. 1940. 


(17) 


BOTANY.— Peter Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa Santa and pilgrimages to his 
cemetery.| ANNA HK. JENKINS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, A. A. Brran- 
court, Instituto Biologico, Sado Paulo, K. S1nperscumip7, Instituto Biologico, 
and W. ANDREW ARcHER, U.S. Department of Agriculture.” 


“Trees by their very nature are land- 
marks and memorials. They are therefore 
identified with human happenings. Also, 
trees, having more than the alloted span of 


1 Among the desiderata we assembled mostly 
in 1941 for the preparation of this. article is a letter 
(Dec. 6, 1941) from James A. G. Rehn, correspond- 
ing secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, in which he wrote as follows: 
“T have your letter of the 3rd about Peter Lund, 
whose name of course was reasonably familiar to 
me on account of his work on the fossil deposits at 
Lagoa Santa. He was elected a Correspondent of 
our Academy January. 29, 1850, and our records 
give his death as having occurred May 25, 1880. 
Correspondents of the Academy are elected from 
scientists non-residents of Philadelphia, who have 
achieved outstanding distinction in work in the 
natural sciences. A very considerable part of all 
the great workers in our field in the last century 
and a quarter were Correspondents of the Acad- 
emy, although the number in this class at any 
one time is naturally limited, and rarely has ex- 


man, carry their associations through genera- 
tions of men and women. Thus they often 
figure not only in biography but also in 


ceeded 150.’’ This article therefore commemorates 
the centenary of Dr. Lund’s election as a Corre- 
sponding Member of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia. 

We are indebted to Dr. Elisabeth Deichmann, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Uni- 
versity, for a critical reading of the manuscript. 

Miss Deichmann’s mother was P. W. Lund’s 
grand-niece. She was 11 years old when he died, 
but her whole childhood was flavored by stories 
about this distant uncle who kept up the contact 
with his family in Denmark until his death. 

2 In 1935-36 the first writer was on a mycolog- 
ical mision to Brazil, at the invitation of the gov- 
ernment of the State of Sdo Paulo, and was work- 
ing cooperatively with the second writer at the 
Instituto Biologico. The fourth writer was com- 
pleting a plant exploration mission to South Amer- 
ican 


Fespruary 1951 


history.”” So wrote Randall and Edgerton 
(76)° in their Famous trees. 

Of trees associated with ‘notable persons, 
events, and places” is the beautiful pequi 
(Caryocar brasiliense Camb.)* growing beside 
the tomb of Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801- 
1880)° at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. 
The actual existence of this tree and its 
role in the life of this noted Danish scientist 
may well have been disclosed to many read- 
ers only through brief mention of it in one 
or another of Prof. Anibal Mattos compila- 
tions of 1935 (9-12). These mark the cente- 
nary celebration of the savant’s arrival at 
Lagoa Santa. In 1930 the original tomb had 
been replaced by a monument ‘‘which would 
signify the gratitude of the people of Minas 
for the valuable works of the great scientist.” 
This was erected under Professor Mattos’ 
direction at the commission of the governor 
of the State. 

In his address at the unveiling of the new 


3 Reference is made by number (italic) to Liter- 
ture cited. p. 74. 

4 Described in Saint-Hilaire (78, p. 322, pl. 67 
bis). The illustration is reproduced in Jenkins’ 
“Introductory Hssay’? accompanying Saint- 
Hilaire’s ‘‘Esquisse de mes Voyages au Brésil et 
Paraguay”’ (20, fig. 4). 

5 For an extended biography of Lund cf. Rein- 
hardt (17). A brief obituary notice (1) is quoted 
below: 

“On May 25th died, at Lagoa Santa, in Brazil, 
the Danish philosopher and zoologist, Dr. P. V. 
Lund, aged nearly 79. Born in Copenhagen he grad- 
uated at the Copenhagen University, and was 
intended for the medical profession. He was soon 
diverted from this pursuit, however, by his inter- 
est for natural science, and when, in 1825, he 
gained a double golden medal for some zoological 
prize essays, he made a definite choice between 
the two. Ill health made him seek a milder climate 
in South America; and after a short stay in Rio 
Janeiro he returned to Europe, travelled to Italy 
with J. F. Schouw, the Danish botanist, and Mr. 
Harewood, and spent some years in France, where 
he became a friend of Cuvier. In 1832 he went out 
again to Brazil, and thenceforward lived in the 
small town of Lagoa Santa, in the province of 
Minas Gerais. The remarkable caves near this 
place, containing fossil remains of the Brazilian 
fauna from the Tertiary period, were discovered 
by Dr. Lund; and the paleontological collections 
he made in them were presented by him in 1854 to 
the Danish State, and now form a separate and 
much appreciated section of the Zoological Mu- 
seum of Copenhagen. 

‘Dr. Lund also transmitted to Copenhagen 
many specimens of birds from the vicinity of 
Lagoa Santa. Prof. Reinhardt’s well-known essay 
on the bird-fauna of the Campos of Brazil was 
based mainly upon Lund’s collections.’’ (Cf. also 
Pinto, 185.) 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE O7 


monument to Lund, the representative of 
Denmark stated that the site of the monu- 
ment is the same as that acquired by the 
savant and that the parcel of cerrado® is 
entirely enclosed (1/1, p. 22). “‘At one side 
of the monument,” he continued, “is the 
‘frondoso pequy’ under the shade of which 
the scientist used to study.”’ Mattos (/7, 
p. 28) wrote that during the course of its 
construction a vase of flowers and a branch 
of the pequi were deposited in the tomb by 
Sra. Carlos Correa and Sra. Mattos. Because 
of its location and its low, broad head, the 
tree forms an important part of the com- 
position in two of Mattos’ photographs taken 
within the cemetery (9, opposite p. 57, also 
reproduced in /0, opposite p. 32; 9, opposite 
p. 80). 

Our introduction to the pequi by Lund’s 
monument was in 1936, when we were privi- 
leged to make a pilgrimage to his grave. 

As guests of Dr. José de Mello Soares de 
Gouvea, director of the Department of Agri- 
culture of Minas Gerais, the first three of 
the writers made the tour from Belo Hori- 
zonte on February 2. We had attended the 
“First Meeting of the Plant Pathologists 
of Brazil’’ held in Rio January 20-25, then 
visited the Escola Superior de Agricultura 
at Vicosa,” Minas, and were returning to 
Rio and Sdo Paulo, via Belo Horizonte. 
The fourth writer’s pilgrimage to the ceme- 
tery was made on August 3, as the guest of 
Dr. Henrique L. de Mello Barreto, botanist 
of the State Agricultural Department.® 

As an introduction to Lagoa Santa we are 
here quoting from the preface of Warming’s 
(22, p. 455) Lagoa Santa, as well as repro- 
ducing the map (Fig. 1) there cited. 

Lagoa Santa est un petit village de l'état 
brésilien de Minas geraés. Il est situé 4 19° 40° de 
latitude Sud, au Nord-Nord-Ouest de Rio de Ja- 
neiro (voir la vignette du titre et la carte p. 267). 
C’est 1A qu’habitait, depuis 1835 jusqu’en 1880, 
annee de sa mort, le zoologiste et paléontologue 


6 A recent description of “campo cerrado’? is 
that by Bezerra dos Santos (2, pp. 41-144). 

7Our host on this occasion was Prof. A. 8. 
Muller, then plant pathologist and acting director 
of the Escola, now on the staff of the Escuela 
Agricola Panamericana at Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 

8’ We are pleased to express our thanks and 
appreciation to Dr. Soares de Gouvea and to Dr. 
Mello Baretto for the hospitality they so gener- 
ously extended. 


CS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


danois trés connu, P. W. Lund, et c’est de 1a 
qu’il dirigeait la publication de ses belles et fort 
importantes recherches sur les animaux fossiles 
des cavernes calcaires du Brésil (comp. |’index 
bibliographique). Lagoa Santa fut visité trois fois 
par le zoologiste danois, M. le Prof. Joh. Rein- 
hardt, qui y passait chaque fois un temps assez 
long. Moi-méme, étudiant, au début de mes 
études de botanique,—il y aura bienté6t trente 
ans,—j’y ai vécu, dans la maison de Lund, trois 
belles années de ma jeunesse (1863-1866). Je 
rappelle ma jeunesse afin qu’on veuille bien ne 
pas coter trop haut les imperfections des observa- 
tions que j’ai faites et que je communique dans ce 
mémoire. Lagoa Santa fut visité également par 
plusieurs autres explorateurs et savants, venus 
notamment pour voir Lund et lui rendre visite 
(v. p. 162), de sorte que ce misérable hameau est 
devenu en quelque sorte un endroit classique dans 
Vhistoire des sciences. 


On February 2, upon reaching the out- 
skirts of Lagoa Santa, our host halted a 
few moments in order that we might view 
the lake for which the hamlet is named 
(Fig. 2, A) and concerning which there are 
so many legends (cf. 10, pp. 19-25). 

The story of Lund’s taking up his abode 
in Lagoa Santa and of his owning a piece of 


cerrado in the neighborhood was recounted 
by Mrs. Agnes Chase (5) following her pil- 
erimage to the old tomb. ‘‘A few hours 
north of Bello Horizonte is Lagoa Santa,” 
she began, and continued: 


Lund was a consumptive who went to Brazil 
[1825] for his health. After a few years he re- 
turned to Denmark cured, but the disease again 
attacked him and he returned to Lagoa Santa to 
die. Being a Protestant he could not be buried 
in the cemetery, so he bought a piece of ground 
about 5 kilometers from the village for his grave. 
He lived 40 years after that, and buried Claus- 
sen,? and another friend and his two Danish 
servants in his little cemetery before he himself 
was buried there in 1880 at the age of 79. The few 
acres inclosed form a precious preserve of the 
original campo. Except for four immense clumps 


®Lund’s three secretaries were the Norwegian 
Brandt, his own countryman Warming, and the 
German Berens, and Brandt and Behrens were 
buried in Lund’s cemetery (9, p. 91). Claussen 
returned to Europe and died in London in 1855 
(ef. 21, p. 11). We are making this correction here 
at Mrs. Chase’s suggestion. The names were not 
clear on the old tomb, she explained to us, and she 
understood that Claussen was buried in Lund’s 
plot. 


<A 
Belmante 


= 20° 


we Campinas 


acarehy 
A ey Comm 


——— Lund og Riedel 
(1833 - 35) 


uneghs ee Warmin g 
( 1863 0g 1866) 


Fie. 1.—Location of Lagoa Santa as shown on Dr. Eugene Warming’s map accompanying his Lagoa 
a Zane 
Santa (22, p. 267; 23, p. 101). 


vou. 41, No. 2 


Frepruary 1951 


of bamboo, the ground is left wild—the best kind 
of memorial to Pedro Lund. He was dearly loved 
by the Brazilians, and women still come to the 
cross to pray for the soul of the Protestante. 


In further detail of her visit to the old 
tomb on March 25, 1926, Mrs. Chase has 
told us that fresh flowers, then wilted, had 
been placed at the foot of the cross. Her 
photograph (5, pl. 8, fig. 2) shows the cross 
in its position outside the ‘‘Campo Santo” 
as one author (9, p. 53) referred to the old 
cemetery. In the new enclosure the cross 
stands in line with the tombs of Lund and 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE 69 


his assistants and to the rear (see Fig. 3, B). 
Painted black, it is of ‘‘aroeira”’ (mastic-tree) 
and has the date of Brandt’s death, ‘‘1862,”’ 
engraved on it, as Dr. Mello Barreto has 
informed us. 

At the cemetery one not only pays homage 
to Peter Lund and his beloved assistants, 
but he at once senses that the pequi growing 
so near the plot selected by the naturalist 
for his grave must have been an intimate 
tree-friend. Breaking the silence as if reading 
our thoughts our host said, ‘“‘Lund used to 
sit under that tree while engaged in study.” 


Fia. 2.—A, The lake at Lagoa Santa. B, The cemetery of Dr. Peter Wilhelm Lund; at right, monu- 
ment surmounted by a bronze bust of the savant; in left foreground, Warming memorial; at left, the 
pequi. Photographs by Bitancourt, February 2, 1986. 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The tree was in full leaf on February 2 
(Fig. 2, B). On August 3, however, it was 
completely defoliated, with the recently 
dropped leaves lying on the ground below. 
In describing the vegetation of Lagoa Santa 
in spring (August-October), Warming (23, p. 
228)'° mentioned Caryocar brasiliense as one 
of the trees that drop all their leaves, then 
immediately leaf out. 

Lund’s pequi was conforming to this pat- 
tern when the fourth writer saw it on August 
3. He painstakingly oriented his camera to 
include as much as possible of the pequi’s 
odd, tortuous frame (Fig. 3, A).!! He noted, 
too, the deeply furrowed bark, less well 
shown in the photograph. It so happens that 
the head of another bare pequi forms the 
background in his photograph of the monu- 
ment to Lund (Fig. 3, B). In its defoliation 
this tree exposes a few epiphytes. 

In Mrs. Chase’s photograph of the old 
tomb (5) taken on March 25, 1926, the 
tree is in its usual luxuriant foliage 
casting a heavy shadow on the ground be- 
neath. In Mattos’ corresponding illustration 
the pequi is leafless. In both cases it is 
shown only in part, at the left, and the 
legends refer only to the tomb. 

References to the tree in the legends ac- 
companying Mattos’ illustrations of the new 
cemetery are as follows: “Visto do velho 
pequy a cuja sombra estudava o sabio dr. 
Lund” (9, opposite p. 57); ““Herma do dr. 

” During his visit to Belo Horizonte, the fourth 
writer was presented with a copy of Lofgren’s 
translation into Portuguese of Warming’s Lagoa 
Santa (23). This volume, now catalogued in the 
Library, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, has 
been a ready reference in the preparation of the 
present article. 

1 The monument to Warming shown in the left 
of this photograph was erected in 1934, through 
the inspiration of Dr. Paulo Campos Porto, by 
the Jardin Botanico, Rio de Janeiro. Its execution 
was aided by the Secretary of Agriculture of the 
State of Minas Gerais. The inscription on the 
monument is as follows: 

ALTERI EGREGIO DANO NATURAE ~ INDAGATORI 
JOANNI EUGENIO WARMING 
DVI DOCTORI LUND AD LACUM SANCTUM CONVICTOR 
FLORAM AD BRASILIANAM PENITUS SCRUTATUS 
OECOLOGIAE BOTANICAE EXSTITIT FUNDATOR 
IN PERENNEM MERITI MEMORIAM 
POSTRIDIE NONAS JULIAS 
A. D. MCMXXXII 
HORTI BOTANICI 
AD 


RIO DE JANEIRO 
RECTORES 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


Lund vendo-se ao fundo pequizeiro por elle 
plantado...’’ (10, opposite p. 32), and “O 
pequizeiro plantado pelo dr. Lund...” (17, 
opposite p. 80). 

Our hosts of 1936 have assured us that 
the first of these legends, as just quoted, is 
the correct one. The pequi is a common 
plant of the cerrado, they remind us, and is 
very slow-growing. Substantiating the latter 
statement our colleague Dr. A. O. Drum- 
mond” wrote us in 1946 that his 6-year-old 
pequi at Vigosa was then only 70 em high. 

Warming (23, p. 62) named the pequi 
among trees of the cerrado of Lagoa Santa 
having an orchard-tree-like habit and at- 
taining a height of 3-6 meters. It is perhaps 
the comparatively low stature coupled with 
the many-leaved, far-extending branches, 
that imparts to Lund’s pequi its unforget- 
table aspect. The pequi of the cerrado of 
Mogy-Mirim, Séo Paulo, illustrated by 
Hoehne (8, p. 86) is more erect and ap- 
parently taller. Dr. Mello Barreto tells us 
that he has seen pequizeiros 10 meters high 
and that Riedel cited examples reaching 13 
meters. 

Still another illustration of the pequi tree 
has the following informative legend: 


The ‘pequi’ tree—Caryocar Brasiliense Camb. 
One of the many fruit-bearing trees of the cerrado 
of Brazil, which in its habit shows us what na- 
ture proportions to plants subject to incessant, 
harmful fires. Their fruits are, however, most 
useful and are the base of various drinks and 
condiments [translation].' 


Dr. Drummond’s letter already cited con- 
tains the following observations relative to 
pequi fruit: ‘‘In localities where the tree 
1s native its fruit is much appreciated by the 
inhabitants; 1t does not appeal to those un- 
accustomed to its wild flavor. The seed is 
covered with small spines, which are easily 
freed and which pierce the tongue slightly. 
A dentist told me that when he lived at 
Cardisburgo, a small village in the cerrados 

Formerly on the staff of the Escola Superior 
de Agricultura de Minas Gerais, now of the Ser- 
vigo Publico do Estado de Minas Gerais, Belo 


Horizonte. 
rq. Bot. Estado Sao Paulo, n. s., 1 (5). 


pequi in Brazil cf. Corréa (7), Pereira (14), Netto 
(13), and others. 


71 


1D’S PEQUI TREE 


LM LU 


uj 


PETER WILHE 


AL 


ET 


JENKINS 


FeBRuary 1951 


apIsyno inbed ssoyvoey, aoyjoue YT 


‘rayory Aq sydeasojoyg ‘(g) oinsopous ay4 


1940504 ‘sseyve] ‘inbod s,puny (7) Surmoys ‘ogeT ‘“g ysnFny ‘sjuswmuour jBadAas oy} Jo s 


RY 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


near the famous Maquiné Caves, the main 
job he had was to remove the pequi spines 
from the tongues of the village children.” 

In his familiarity with the pequi that now 
grows beside his grave Dr. Lund must have 
known it in full leaf, almost momentarily 
leafless, in gorgeous flower, and then in fruit. 
The charm of the bloom is referred to by 
Chodat and Hassler (6, p. 809) in their 
account of the Caryocaraceae of Paraguay. 
To quote: 


L’unique Caryocaracée trouvée au Paraguay 
est le Caryocar brasiliense un arbuste habitant 
les campos secs au pied et sur le haut plateau de 
la Sierra de Maracaya ot il est assez répandu. 
Sa fleur aux nombreuses étamines d’une couleur 
jaune paille s’ouvrant a l’aube, donne un charme 
tout particulier aux Campos pendant les heures 
matinales. 


The numerous stamens are well shown in 
the line-drawing accompanying the original 
description of the species (cf. footnote 4). 
Their conspicuousness is again apparent 
from the herbarium specimen considerately 
sent to us by Dr. Mello Barreto! (Fig. 4). 
Collected at Belo Horizonte, November 7, 
1941, by J. Evangelista Oliviera 630, this 
has been deposited in the herbarium of the 
U.S. National Arboretum. The only other 
accessions of this species in that herbarium 
are two from Minas collected in 1914 by 
P. H. Dorsett (1862-1943), A.D. Shammel, 
and Wilson Popenoe, plant explorers of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. The first 
specimen from Lavras, January 14, consists 
of fruit, and a tomentose stem with leaves. 
The second specimen, from Januaria, Feb- 
ruary 14, is of fruit only and the collector’s 
note reads: “The fruit is just commencing 
to ripen. The pulp surrounding the seed is 
vellow and has a peculiar taste.” Their 
photograph (February 4) of ‘‘a large pequi 
erowing beside the road to Lagoa Santa”’ 
is shown in Fig. 4. The tree is ‘very com- 
mon throughout this region,” they noted. 

In 1938, upon discovering that Caryocar 
brasiliense was not represented in the U.S. 
National Herbarium, the present writers 
contributed their ‘‘souvenir” of a cluster of 
the young, silken, 3-parted leaves from the 
tip of a branch of Lund’s pequi, together 


1° Transmitted with his letter of November 11, 
1941. 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


with a representative set of photographs 
taken in the cemetery on February 2, 1936. 
To these they added a view of the nearby 
cerrado. The fourth writer’s specimen from 
a blooming tree at Mendenha, Minas, Sep- 
tember 24, 1936, was deposited in the same 
herbarium as its second accession of Caryocar 
brasiliense. This specimen is complete with 
fruit. We are gratified to note that more 
recently our small sample from Lund’s tree 
has been supplemented by an ample speci- 
men from a tree in flower at Lagoa Santa 
(U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1933005). The de- 
scriptive label reads: ‘‘Caryocar brasiliense 
Camb. Tree 2-10 m. Flowers white. ‘Pe- 
qui,’ fruit edible, has a hard exocarp. The 
fruit is the yellow pulp around the spiny 
seed., Important tree in cerrado. In 
campo cerrado, near Lagoa Santa airfield. 
Municipio of Lagoa Santa, alt. 850-900 m. 
Louis O. Williams, Vicente Assis, No. 7441. 
Sept. 10, 1945.” 

In response to our inquiry of 1941 we 
learned from Dr. Lyman B. Smith” that 
there were then three sheets of the Caryocar 
in the Gray Herbarium. All three specimens 
are historical, the earliest especially so be- 
cause it was collected by Lund’s countryman 
Claussen, who as circumstances willed, was 
responsible for Lund’s having become the 
“founder of paleontology” in Minas Gerais 
(4) or as it is sometimes stated, “father of 
Brazilian paleontology” (9, p. 53; 10, p. 
307). As cited by Dr. Smith the three speci- 
mens are: 


Claussen, without number, Minas Gerais, 1840. 
Widgren, without number, Minas Gerais, 1845. 
Dusen, No. 15968, Jaguariahyva, Paranda, 1914. 


Claussen’s specimen could well have been 
collected from a pequi on his fazenda ‘‘Por- 
teirinhas” near Curvello (see map, Fig. 1). 
It was upon Lund and Riedel’s arrival at 
Curvello in 1834 that the “adventurer” (cf. 


‘6 For comparison with air travel to Lagoa 
Santa today, we cannot refrain from quoting here 
Warming’s (23, p. 10) passage depicting his jour- 
ney from Rio to Lagoa Santa (1863): “I left the 
28th of May with the party of a farmer from the 
neighborhood of Lagoa Santa and, after 42 days’ 
travel, glimpsed for the first time that unforget- 
table little place... [translation].’’ 

7 'Then on the staff of the Gray Herbarium, 
Harvard University, now on that of the Depart- 
ment of Botany, U. 8. National Museum. 


FEBRUARY 1951 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE es 


_ Fic. 4.—Pequi growing beside the road to Lagoa Santa, Brazil, February 4, 1914, Dr. Popenoe posing 
in foreground. Photograph by Dorsett, contributed by the Division of Plant Exploration and Intro- 
duction, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 


9, p. 9) Claussen encountered the two scienti- 
fic travellers, thereupon inviting them to his 
fazenda, where they spent a week. This 
unanticipated visit led to Lund’s becoming 
acquainted with the fossil-contaiming cal- 
careous caves of the region (cf. 23, p. 9). 
Our excursion to Lagoa Santa on February 
2 included a visit to a nearby cave explored 
by Lund, namely, Lapinha Cave. 

The specimen collected by Dusén (1856— 
1926) at Jaguariahyva is, of course, from 
the same locality where Saint-Hilaire dis- 
covered the pequi growing and in bloom 
(February 5) in 1820 (19, vol. 2, p. 50).® 
Neither record is cited in Hoehne’s (8, 1930, 
p. 48) discussion of the cerrados of Jaguaria- 
hyva. 


18 The specimens on which Cambessedes [see 
footnote 1] description of Caryocar brasiliense is 
based were collected by Saint-Hilaire (1779-1851) 
‘Sn eampis prope 8. Bento, in parte occidentali 
desertaque provinciae Minas Gerais, et Franca 
[see map, Fig. 1], urbem provinciae $8. Paulo.’ 


Our host of February 2 has told us that 
because of the botanical pursuits of Lund, 
Warming, and others at Lagoa Santa, this 
is the type locality of many different plants 
of the cerrado. “In consequence,” he con- 
tinued, “botanists come from far and near 
to re-discover, observe, and collect these 
same species.” 

Almost as he spoke, we noted the typical 
symptoms that follow infection by Sphace- 
loma on leaves of Byrsonima coccolobaefolia 
H. B. K. (Malpighiaceae) growing naturally 
in a small space before the cemetery. Jour- 
neying to Belo Horizonte soon afterward 
our colleague Dr. H. P. Wrug™ took ad- 
vantage of the opportunity also to visit 
Lund’s cemetery and again to collect mate- 
rial of the Sphaceloma. These specimens of 
February 2 and April 8, together with a 

19 Then plant pathologist at the Instituto Agro- 
nomico, Campinas, State of Sao Paulo, now on the 
staff of the Horto Florestal, Cantareira, State of 
Sao Paulo. 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


culture isolated from one of them, served 
as the basis of the description of a new 
pathogenic fungus, named for the locality, 
1.e., S. lagoa—santensis Bitancourt and Jen- 
Lovast (Gy) jo), AEs jolly a1), 

The ‘Introduction’ to Warming’s (23, p. 
17) classic Lagoa Santa closes with the fol- 
lowing sentence: “When Lund, after visit- 
ing Claussen, was accompanying his com- 
panion Riedel to the capital of Minas, Ouro 
Preto, situated a few leagues to the south- 
east of Lagoa Santa, the lovely lake with its 
enchanting neighborhood so impressed him 
that, having traversed the desert regions of 
the interior, he involuntarily exclaimed: 
‘Here indeed: here is a good place for one to 
live,’ perhaps forseeing that he was to live 
there for almost half a century and to find 
bis final resting place in the shade of the 
trees of the campo [translation].”’ 

The ancient pequi near the grave of Lund 
seems to assume the personality of a kindly 
sentinel, standing silent, protective, and se- 
rene. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) ANonymous. Obituary [Peter Wilhelm 
Lund}. Ibis, ser. 4, 4: 488-484. 1880. 

(2) BrezprRa pos Santos, L. People and scenes 
of Brazil: Excerpts from the “Revista Bra- 
sileira de Geografia”: 160 pp. [Translated 
by Adrian Rondileau.] Jn Conselho Na- 
cional de Geografia. Rio de Janeiro, 1945. 

(3) Birancourt, A. A., and JENKINS, ANNA FE. 
New discoveries of Myriangiales in the 
Americas. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Congr., 


Washington, 1940, 3: 149-172. 1942. 

(4) Catocmras, J. D. O Dr. Peter Wilhelm 
Lund. Rey. Inst. Hist. Geogr. Bras. 
Volume especial: 83-93. Rio de Janeiro, 
1933. 

(5) Cuasgp, Agnes. LHastern Brazil through an 
agrostologist’s spectacles. Ann. Rep. 
Smithsonian Inst. for 1926: 383-403. 1927. 


(6) Cuopat, E., and Hassuer, FE. Plantae Has- 
slerianae. .. Bull. Herb. Boiss., sér. 2, 
3: 809. 1903. 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


(7) Corréa, M. P. Flora do Brasil: Algumas 
plantas uteis, suas applicagées e distri- 
buigao geografia: 154 pp. Rio de Janeiro, 
1909. 

(8) Hornne, F.C. Araucarilandia, 133 pp., 1930; 
Excursao. . . S40 Paulo... 112 pp., undated. 
Sao Paulo, Secretaria da Agr., Indus., e. 
Com., Dept. Bot. do Estado, Observa- 
goes... Brasil 2 and 3. 

(9) Marros, A. O sabio dr. Lund e a prehistoria 
Americana, ed. 3: 92 pp. Belo Horizonte, 


1935. 

(10) O sabio dr. Lund e estudos sobre a 
pre-historia brasileira: 346 pp. Belo Hori- 
zonte, 1935. 

quip) = Collectana Peter W. Lund: 268 pp. 
Belo Horizonte, 1935. 

(12) ———. Monumentos historicos, artisticos, e 


religiosos de Minas Gerais: 502 pp. Belo 
Horizonte, 1935. 

(13) Nerro, F. F. The problem of the Amazon. 
Sci Monthly 61: 33-44, 90-100. 1945. 
[Translated by W. A. Archer with trans- 
lator’s note, p. 38.] 

(14) Ppretra, H. Apontamentos sobre madetras 
do estado de S. Paulo: 160 pp. 
1919. 

(15) Prnto, O. Peter W. Lund e sua contribuigaéo 
a ornttologia brasileira. Papéis Avulsos 
Dept. Zool. Secretaria Agr. 8S. Paulo. 9: 
269-283. 1950. 

(16) Ranpauu, C. E., and Eparrton, D. P. 
Famous trees. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. 
Publ. 295: 115 pp. 1938. 

(17) Reinnarpt, J. Naturforskeren Peter Wilhelm 
Lund... Overs. Danske Vid. Selsk. Forh. 
1880: 147-210. 1880. 

(18) Satnr-Hinarre, A. DE. 
Meridionalis 1: 322. 1825. 


Flora Brasiliae 


(19) — Voyage dans les provinces de Saint- 
Paul et de Sainte-Catherine, 2 vols. 
Paris, 1851. 

(20) ———. Esquisse de mes voyages au Brésil 
et Paraguay... Reprinted in Chron. Bot. ~ 
5 (1): 61 pp. 1946. 

(21) Urspan, I. Claussen Peter (flor. 1834-1850). 


In Martivs, C. F. A., Flora Brasiliensis 1 
(1): 11-13. 1906. 

(22) Warmine, E. Lagoa Santa... 
Copenhagen, 1892. 

(23) ———. Lagoa Santa (traduegio do Dina- 
marquez por Alberto Lofgren): 282 pp. 
Belo Horizonte, 1908. 


: 488 pp. 


Sao Paulo, 


Fesruary 1951 


KRISHNASWAMY: TWO SPECIES OF COPEPODA 75 


ZOOLOGY :—Notes on the undescribed males of two species of Copepoda. S. KRrisHna- 
swaAmy, Madras University. (Communicated by Paul L. Illg.) 


In the course of a study of the Copepoda 
of the Madras coast, males belonging to two 
species, Centropages trispinosus Sewell (1914) 
and Diosaccus truncatus Gurney (1927), 
known so far only by the females, were dis- 
covered. A full description of these male 
types is given in this paper so as to complete 
the identification of the species. The types 
will be lodged in the Indian Museum at Cal- 
cutta. 

I wish to record my grateful thanks to 
Dr. C. P. Gnanamuthu, director, Zoology 
Laboratory, Madras University, for guid- 
ance and help and to Lt. Col. R. B. Seymour 
Sewell, of Cambridge, for going through the 
paper and offering helpful criticisms. 


Centropages trispinosus Sewell 
Fig. 1, a-d 
Centropages trispinosus Sewell, 1914, p. 228, pl. 23, 

figs. 5-8. 

This species was established by Sewell in 1914, 
on the basis of a solitary female taken at Kilakarai 
in the Gulf of Manaar, South India, and has not 
until now been recorded since. While examining 
the plankton collected in July 1937 from Krusadai 
Island in the Gulf of Manaar I found several 
females and males. Large numbers were also 
found in the inshore plankton collected at Madras 
in July, August, September, and January. 

Sewell (loc. cit.: pl. 18, fig. 7) has given the 
figure of the second swimming leg and is of opin- 
ion that the remaining legs resemble those of 
C. alcocki Sewell. The first swimming leg, how- 
ever, differs from the second one and has the 
following structure: The exopodite is nearly twice 
the length of the endopodite. The first exopod 
joint carries one outer spine and one inner seta, 
the second joint one outer spine and one inner 
seta, and the terminal joint two outer spines, one 
long, finely serrate apical spine, and four inner 
setae. The first endopod joint has an inner seta, 
the second joint two inner setae, and the terminal 
joint five setae. The outer margins of the exopod 
as well as the endopod of the swimming feet are 
hirsute. 

The description of the female holotype given 
by Sewell is fully corroborated by my observa- 
tions of a large number of females except for the 
difference stated above. 


Male (Fig. 1, a).—1.025 mm, smaller than the 
female. 

Body yellowish red with dark red patches on 
the cephalothorax. A bright-red spot is present 
on the anal segment. Outline of body with the 
three spines on posterior corner of cephalothorax 
as in the female. The abdomen is 4-jointed, where- 
as in the female it is only 3-jointed. 

The right antennule is geniculate and composed 
of 21 joints, having the following proportional 
lengths: 

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21. 
11.9.3.4.6.5.4.5.6. 6. 4. 9.12.16.13.16.15.30.35.15.25. 


Seven of these joints (i.e., from the twelfth to 
the eighteenth) are very swollen. All the joints 
carry one or two setae each toward the outer 
side. These setae are short and thick, except 
those on joints 19, 20, and 21, which are long. 
The eighteenth joint is hinged to the nineteenth, 
and these joints each have a toothed plate to- 
ward the outer side. The inner distal end of the 
nineteenth joint has a protuberance, whereas the 
terminal joint is produced into a fingerlike proe- 
ess. The number of setae and their arrangement 
are as shown in Fig. 1, 6. The antenna, mandible, 
maxillae, and maxilliped are as in the female. 
The first four pairs of swimming feet as in the 
female. 

The fifth leg of the left side differs from those 
of the other species of the genus. The exopod is of 
two joints, the proximal joint has an outer spine, 
while the distal jot, which is nearly twice as 
long as the first joint, bears two outer and two 
apical spines, the outer ones being longer. The 
endopod is 3-articled and is shorter than the exo- 
pod. The first and second joints carry a plumose 
seta each, while the third has two inner, two 
outer, and two apical plumose setae (Fig. 1, ¢). 
The exopod of right fifth leg resembles those of 
the other members of the genus. The first joint 
bears a short outer spine, and the “‘chela”’ bears 
two spines one toward the outer side and one 
toward the inner side, and the outer margin is 
hirsute. The endopod is 3-jointed, and the first 
and second joints carry a plumose seta each, the 
third joint three inner, two apical, and one outer 
plumose seta (Fig. 1, @). 

Remarks.—The presence of the spines on the 
posterior end of the eephalothorax is a distinct 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


feature that facilitates the identification of this 
species. The occurrence of this species at Madras 
is of interest because it was previously known 
only from Kilakarai, 300 miles south of Madras. 


Diosaccus truncatus Gurney 
Fig. 2, a-d 


Diosaccus truncatus Gurney, 1927, p. 513, fig. 136; 
Sewell, 1940, p. 240. 


Gurney described this harpacticoid in 1927 
from the females collected by him at Port Said. 
In the Madras plankton collected on February 21 
and 22, 1949, four males and two females were 
found. A night haul made at Kundugal channel 
(Gulf of Manaar) on March 22, 1948, yielded 
four males. 

Male.—0.68 mm, distinctly shorter than the 
female, which measures 0.9 mm. 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 2 

The rostrum is triangular and mobile. The 
second, third, and fourth thoracic segments have 
their lateral margins produced externally into 
winglike expansion. The abdomen is 4-jointed. 
The caudal rami are longer than broad, and each 
ramus carries three spines and an apical jomted 
seta, which is half as long as the body. 

The antennules of the two sides are geniculate. 
Each antennule is 8-articled, the joints having the 
following proportional lengths: 


1, 2.3-4.5. 6. 7.8. 
11.15. 5. 15.10.10.8. 


The line of demarcation between the third and 
fourth joint is not clear. The fifth joint is very 
swollen and has a knoblike projection towards its 
proximal side. It carries an “aesthete” on its distal 
end. The sixth and seventh joints are hinged and 


Fie. 1.—Centropages trispinosus Sewell: a, Lateral view; b, right antennule (from the seventh joint); 
c, fifth leg (left side); d, fifth leg (right side). 


FEBRUARY 1951 KRISHNASWAMY: TWO 
are armed with fine teeth on their inner edges. The 
arrangement of the setae is as shown in Fig. 2, b. 
The antenna, mouth parts, and the first swimming 
feet as in the female. The second swimming leg 
differs from that of the female in the exopod and 
endopod being of three and two joints and not 
three and three joints as in the female. Further, 
the outer margins of the first joints of the exopod 
and endopod are hirsute. The first and second 
exopod joints carry a serrate spine each on the 
outer side, while the third joint has three serrate 
spines and three setae. The second exopod joint 
has two inner setae also. The first endopod joint 
has a seta toward the inner side, while the termi- 
nal joints carries two spines and two setea, two 
of which are modified (Fig. 2, c). The third and 
fourth swimming legs as in the female. Fifth leg 
has the basal expansion completely fused and 


SPECIES OF COPEPODA i, 
bears two unequal spines and three setae (Fig. 2, 
d: Ls). Sixth leg is rudimentary and is represented 
by a stout spine and two setae (Fig. 2, d: Le). 
Remarks.—The female of this species found at 
Madras is smaller in size compared with the form 
described by Gurney from Port Said. It is being 
recorded for the first time from the Bay of Bengal. 


REFERENCES 


GurRNEY, R. Report on Crustacea Copepoda. Trans. 
Zool. Soe. London 22: 451. 1927. 

Nicuouts, A. G. A revision of the families Dio- 
saccidae Sars and Laophontidae T. Scott. Rec. 
South Australian Mus. 7: 165. 1941. 

SEWELL, R. B.S. Notes on surface copepods of the 
Gulf of Mannar. Spolia Zeylanica 9: 191, 1914. 

Copepods of the Indian seas: Calanoida. 

Mem. Indian Mus. 10 (2). 1932. 

Copepoda Harpacticoida. John Murray 

Expedition Sci. Rep. 7 (2). 1940. 


Fie. 2.—Diosaccus truncatus Gurney: a, Dorsal view; b, antennule; c, second swimming feet; d@, fifth 
leg (lis), sixth leg (Le). 


78 


ZOOLOGY .—New 
Fayetteville, Ark. (Communicated 
Their dark color, retiring habits, and small 


size make collection of cleidogonid millipeds 
difficult, but with patience they can be found 


in almost any damp humus in the Mis-. 
sissippi Valley, the states east of it, and in . 


Central America. Inasmuch as species are 
rather endemic, doubtless numerous others 
are yet to be discovered. A key to the genera 
will be found in the survey of the Family 
Cleidogonidae by Hoffman (1950). 

I am indebted to Dr. M. W. Sanderson 
for the opportunity of studying specimens 
of Cleidogona fustis Cook and Collins and 
the type specimens of C. infiata and C. unita, 
all of which are in the collection of the IIl- 
inois Natural History Survey. The type 
specimens of C. minima, C. aspera, Ozarko- 
gona glebosa, and Tiganogona moesta will be 
deposited in the collection of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Unless 
stated otherwise, collection was by the au- 
thor. 


Cleidogona fustis Cook and Collins 


The two male specimens from Turkey Run 
State Park, Montgomery County Ind., are in 
the Illinois collection. This is the only published 
locality of this species. 


Cleidogona aspera, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


This species is near C. laminata Cook. and 
Collins in the structure of the gonopods and in 
the modification of the legs of the male. The 
two species are separated by differences in the 
longest processes of the gonopods, which are 
fimbriate in laminata and bifid in aspera. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual areolate buff maculae; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
ia HOS OH 7/5 (By GB By A, Il ; 

The ninth legs are almost as in laminata; 
on the mesial surface of the first segment is a 
deep, rectangular depression, its laterad surface 
and the area immediately distad finely granular. 
The glandular openings on the first segments of 
the tenth and eleventh legs are as in /aminata. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


cleidogonid millipeds (Chordeumoidea). Neti B. Causey, 


by H. F. Loomis.) 


The sternal process at the base of the twelfth 
legs is distinctive in the shape of the spine (Fig. 1). 

As in laminata, the ventral branch of each 
gonopod ends in three processes, the ventral 
one resembling the head of a bird, the longest 
one, unlike laminata, finely bifid distally, and 
the third and shortest one subquadrate and 
attached to the base of the longest process. 
The dorsal branch of each gonopod is somewhat 
flattened vertically; there is no notch on the 
medial face, as in laminata. Ventral, dorsal, 
and lateral views of the gonopods are shown in 
Figs. 2, 3, and 4, respectively. 

Length about 20 mm, width 2.1 mm. 

Female paratype-——Resembles the male in size 
and color; ocelli arranged in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 
A Seo: 

Type locality —Arkansas: Lawrence County, 
6 miles east of Imboden on highway 62; 7 males 
and 7 females were collected from a dry oak- 
cedar area, August 22, 1950. 

Other localities —One male, Pocahontas, Ran- 
dolph County, Ark., August 22, 1950. One male 
collected by Billy C. Rogers, Carthage, Dallas 
County, Ark., October 8, 1950, differs from the 
holotype in that the ventral processes of the 
gonopods are less like the outline of a bird’s 
head and the ocelli are arranged in rows of 1, 
Uy Oy By 4 B, I, al. 


Cleidogona unita, n.sp. 
Figs. 5-9 


The ninth legs of the males of this species 
resemble those of C. caesioannulata (Wood) as 
drawn by Cook and Collins (1896), but the 
details of the gonopods are nearest those of C. 
minima. 

Male holotype——Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual aerolate buff maculae, the 
prozonites lighter than the metazonites; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
in rows of 7, 6, 5,4, 3, 1 @). 

The ninth legs are as shown by Cook and 
Collins for C. caesioannulata (Wood). The first 
segments of the tenth and eleventh legs (Figs. 
5, 6) have prominent cones on the mesial surface 
through which the coxal glands open. The sternal 


Fepruary 1951 CAUSEY: CLEIDOGONID MILLIPEDS 79 


Fias. 1-4.—Cleidogona aspera, male paratype: 1, Sternal process at base of twelfth legs, lateral view; 
2, ventral view of gonopods; 3, same, dorsal view; 4, lateral view of left gonopod. 

Fias. 5-9.—C. wnita, male holotype: 5, First segment of tenth leg; 6, same, eleventh leg; 7, sternal 
process at base of twelfth legs; 8, lateral view of left gonopod; 9, ventral view of gonopods. 

Figs. 10-13.—C.. minima, male holotype: 10, First two segments of ninth leg; 11, first two segments 
of eleventh leg; 12, ventral view of gonopods; 13, lateral view of right gonopod. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


process at the base of the twelfth legs 1s shown 
in Fig. 7. 

The gonopods consist of a wide, dorso-ven- 
trally flattened ventral branch and a cylindrical, 
sigmoidal dorsal branch (Figs. 8, 9). The ends 
of the ventral branches are smoother and their 
medial longitudinal processes are shorter and 
narrower than in C. minima. 

Length about 14 mm. 

Type locality —tlinois: Union County, Giant 
City State Park. The male holotype and two fe- 
males were collected March 6, 1945, by Drs. 
H. H. Ross and M. W. Sanderson. The same 
collectors took a male and a female March 17, 
1942, at Dixon Springs, IIL. 


Cleidogona minima, n. sp- 
Figs. 10-13 


Although the gonopods of this species resemble 
those of C. wnita very closely, the two can be 
distinguished by the differences in size, in the 
details of the medial processes and ends of the 
ventral branches of the gonopods, and by the 
legs of the males. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above with buff 
maculae, cream below; segmental setae set in 
small buff maculae, those at medial setae largest; 
legs dark distally, cream proximally; antennae 
and vertex of head dark brown; ocelli dark, form- 
ing a triangular patch, arranged in rows of 7, 6, 
By By 2y dbo 

The first two segments of a ninth leg are 
shown in Figure 10, and the first segment of 
an eleventh leg, with two small conical projec- 
tions on the mesial surface above the opening 
of the coxal gland, in Fig. 11. The sternal process 
at the base of the twelfth legs is similar to the 
one in C. umita (Fig. 7). 

Each gonopod consists of a cylindrical, sig- 
moidal dorsal branch and a larger, dorso-ven- 
trally flattened ventral branch. The medial longi- 
tudinal process is rolled and larger than the 
similar process in C. unita. Distally the ventral 
branches are emarginate and sharper than in 
C. unita (Figs. 12, 15). 

Length 11 to 12 mm. 

Locality —Alabama: Tuscaloosa. One speci- 
men collected November 9, 1949, from under 
pine bark on the campus of the University of 
Alabama was sent to me by Dr. R. E. Crabill, 
dies 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


Cleidogona inflata, n. sp. 
Figs. 14-19 


This species is nearest C. leona Chamberlin, 
with the ventral branches of the gonopods large 
and inflated and the dorsal branches small and 
simple. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual areolate buff maculae; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. 

On the mesial surface of the first segment of 
the ninth legs there is a shallow depression and 
beyond it a sharp lobe (Fig. 14). The first seg- 
ments of the tenth and eleventh legs, each with 
an apophysis near the opening of the coxal gland, 
are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. The sternal process 
at the base of the twelfth legs is distinctive in 
the slightly constricted base (Fig. 17). 

The large ventral branch of each gonopod 
terminates in three processes, the lateral one 
sigmoid and darkly pigmented distally and the 
other two shorter and lanceolate; the dorsal 
branches are small and hamate (Fig. 19). In 
situ (Fig. 18) only the ventral branches are 
visible, their terminal processes outlined against 
the enlarged body of the branches. 

Length about 17 mm. 

Type locality—tllinois: Putnam County, 
Starved Rock State Park. The holotype, a fe- 
male, and a larva were collected July 12, 1944, 
by Drs. T. H. Frison and M. W. Sanderson. 
One male, same collectors, August 14, 1944, 
White Pines State Park, Ogle County, Ill. 


Ozarkogona, n. gen. 


This genus resembles Cleidogona in body shape, 
absence of keels, smooth surface, shape of first 
segment, proportion of antennal segments, and 
in the structure of the gonopods, each of which 
consists of a hamate ventral branch and a shorter, 
clavate dorsal branch. The males are distin- 
guished from Cleidogona by the absence of a 
medial sternal process at the base of the twelfth 
legs and by the ninth legs, which are 4-jointed 
and with a claw, the first joint enlarged as in 
Bactropus, the second cylindrical and without 
lobes, the third much shortened, and the fourth 
narrow but slightly longer than the third. It 


Fespruary 1951 CAUSEY: CLEIDOGONID MILLIPEDS Sl 


differs from Bactropus in that the ninth legs are dogona. Eyes triangular, composed of about 27 
4-jointed rather than 5-jointed and in the dark ocelli. 
2-branched gonopods. Gnathochilarium as in Clei- Genotype.—Ozarkogona glebosa, n. sp. 


20 


Pres. 14-19.—Cleidogona inflata, male holotype: 14, Ninth leg; 15, first segment of tenth leg; 16, 
same, eleventh leg; 17, sternal process at base of twelfth legs; 18, gonopods zn situ, 19, lateral view of 
left gonopod. 

Pies. 20-21.—Ozarkogona glebosa, male paratype: 20, Cephalic view of ninth leg and sternum; 21, 
lateral view of right gonopod. 

Figs. 22-23.—Tiganogona moesta, male’ paratype: 22, Caudal view of ninth leg and end of dorsal 
branch of gonopod; 23, lateral view of right gonopod and ninth leg. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Ozarkogona glebosa, n. sp. 
Figs. 20, 21 


Male holotype—Color brown above, cream 
- below; segmental setae set in small buff maculae; 
larger buff maculae arranged so that there appear 
to be a lateral buff band and a brown band below 
it; legs dark distally, cream proximally; antennae 
and vertex of head brown; ocelli dark, arranged 
in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. 

The ninth legs (Fig. 20) consist of four seg- 
ments; the fourth segment is short and ends in 
a short claw; the third is shorter but thicker; 
the second is thicker and about three times as 
long as the combined length of the third and 
fourth; the first is much enlarged, and on its 
cephalic surface are two large irregular lobes. 
The second and third segments appear almost 
coalesced, and midway of the first segment is an 
indistinct line that may indicate the coalescence 
of two segments. The third and fourth segments 
and the distal parts of the second are brown. A 
medial sternal process is anterior to the ninth 
legs, and posterior to them is a wide bifid plate. 
The gland openings on the first segments of the 
tenth and eleventh legs are but slightly raised; 
on the mesial surface, proximal end of the third 
segments of these legs is a low, cylindrical process. 

In situ only the medial portion of the appressed 
ventral branches of the gonopods is visible. In 
lateral view (Fig. 21) each gonopod is seen to 
consist of a hamate ventral branch, the end 
sharp and directed laterad, and a shorter, thick, 
dorsal branch terminating in a club. In situ the 
dorsal branches pass between the sternal spine 
and the proximal lobes of the first segment of the 
ninth legs, while the ventral branches pass under 
the distal lobes. 

Length about 16 mm. 

Type locality —Arkansas: Fayetteville; 5 males 
from north end of Mount Kessler, November 10, 
1949, Other Arkansas collections have been made 
at Monte Ne, Benton County; Cane Hill, 
Washington County; and Clarksville, Johnston 
County. 


Tiganogona Chamberlin, emend. 


Tiganogona Chamberlin, Ent. News 39: 154. 1928. 

A recent examination of specimens of T. 
brownae Chamberlin, the genotype, from St. 
Charles, Mo., shows that the very small ninth 
legs were overlooked by Dr. Chamberlin, that he 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


described the tenth legs as the ninth, the eleventh 
as the tenth, and that his reference to a protuber- 
ance on the second joint should be to the third 
joint. Accordingly, the following emendation must 
be made: Differing from Cleidogona in the ninth 
legs of the male, which are smaller, 5-jointed, and 
without a terminal claw; the first segment, the 
largest, is produced ventrally and may be em- 
braced medially by the dorsal branch of the 
gonopod; the second segment is much reduced; 
the third is smaller than the second, and the 
fourth and fifth segments are minute. Each 
gonopod consists of two pieces, a dorsally curved 
ventral branch and a shorter and simpler dorsal 
branch. Although the ninth legs are minute as 
in Ozarkogona, these two genera are readily 
separated by the difference in the number of 
segments and the proportions of the segments 
of the ninth legs. 

T. brownae is represented in the Illinois collec- 
tion by one male from Burton, III. 


Tiganogona moesta, n. sp. 
Figs. 22, 23 


Male holotype-——Color brown above, cream 
below; dorsal segmental setae set in small buff 
maculae; medial and lateral segmental setae set 
in larger, contiguous buff maculae which form a 
longitudinal band; a brown band is below the 
buff one; legs cream proximally, brown distally; 
antennae and vertex of head brown; coelli dark, 
forming a triangular patch, arranged in rows of 
Ils 5 Oy Dy 4h, B, 2 

The ninth legs are so small they could be 
overlooked, but they are made more conspicu- 
ous by the brown pigment on the distal three 
segments. The dorsal branches of the gonopods 
pass between the first segments and come to 
rest on the caudal surface; the lobe on the mesial 
surface of the second segment is almost as large 
as the globular third segment; segment four is 
minute; segment five is slightly larger and with- 
out a claw (Fig. 23). The first segments of the 
tenth and eleventh legs are slightly inflated and 
with the usual gland opening on the mesial sur- 
face; on the tenth legs there is a transverse ridge 
on the cephalic surface of the first segment and 
a rounded lobe on the proximal end of the mesial 
surface of the third segment. 

The ventral branches of the gonopods are 
flattened dorso-ventrally distally and curved 


Fesruary 1951 


gently upward and outward, so that im sitw part 
of the dorsal branches and the first segments of 
the ninth legs are visible between them (Figs 22, 
23). The shorter dorsal branches pass between 
the first segments of the ninth legs and their 
clavate ends rest on the caudal surface of these 
segments. Near their base, the ventral branches 


MILLER AND WINN: FISH FAUNA OF MEXICO 83 


pass closely around a medial knoblike protuber- 
ance that appears to be a sternal process. 

Length about 15 mm. 

Type locality —Arkansas: Carroll County, Blue 
Spring; two males, October 29, 1949. The species 
has been collected at Fayetteville, Washington 
County, also. 


ICHTHYOLOGY .— Additions to the known fish fauna of Mexico: Three species and 
one subspecies from Sonora. Ropert RusH# MiLuer and Howarp E.iiorr 
Winn, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. 


During an ichthyolegical survey of the 
Gila River Basin of Arizona, New Mexico, 
and northern Mexico, in the spring of 1950, 
the writers made the first fish collections to 
be recorded from the San Pedro River in 
Mexico. This stream, once a permanent trib- 
utary to Gila River, originates near Cananea 
in northern Sonora, where peaks of the Can- 
anea Range rise to over 8,000 feet. The sur- 
rounding country is open and extremely dry, 
however, and 15 miles distant, at San Pedro 
Ranch, the average annual rainfall for the 
period 1935-1949, inclusive, was only 12 
inches (data kindly supplied by Nicholas 
Sherbakov, San Pedro Ranch). Four col- 
lections were made along the main river and 
in two of its tributaries in the vicinity of 
San Pedro Ranch, which lies on Rio San 
Pedro about 8 miles south of the inter- 
national boundary line. The elevation of the 
ranch is approximately 4,500 feet. 

On September 10, 1948, James R. Simon 
investigated San Bernardino Creek, about 
18 miles east of Douglas, Ariz. This stream 
rises about 2 miles north of the international 
boundary line and then flows south into 
Sonora, Mexico, eventually to join Rio 
Yaqui. About 1 mile below the border he 
took a catfish and a sunfish that constitute 
new records for Mexico. Neither species is 
native to the Republic west of the Con- 
tinental Divide. 

The following species are recorded for the 
first time from Mexico; the specimens are 
deposited in the University of Michigan Mu- 
seum of Zoology: 


Catostomus insignis Baird and Girard 


The Gila coarse-scale sucker was fairly com- 
mon just above the ranch of Don Rafael Elias, 


about 6 miles southwest of San Pedro Ranch, 
where 13 half-grown and 3 large adults (68-112 
and 264-290 mm in standard length) were se- 
cured; only one half-grown (114 mm), seined at 
night, was taken above the large rock dam 2 
to 3 miles west of Elias Ranch. Both localities 
are on a tributary to Rio San Pedro, called 
locally Rio San Rafael, which joins the main 
river about 4 miles upstream from San Pedro 
Ranch. The specimens were collected by the 
authors and Frances H. Miller on April 21-22, 
1950. One large female extruded ripe eggs under 
slight pressure, indicating that spawning was 
imminent or in progress. The water was 73°F., 
the air 85°F. at 3 p. m. 


Tiaroga cobitis Girard 


The loach minnow was taken on April 22 
in Rio San Pedro, at its junction with Rio San 
Rafael, about 4 miles south of San Pedro Ranch. 
Only 4 adults (37 to 48 mm long), from two 
rocky riffles, were secured. One riffle was about 
25 feet long and formed three rivulets each 1 
to 2 feet wide and about 2.5 inches deep. The 
other riffle, which lay at the head of an undercut 
pool, was about 8 feet long, up to 4 inches deep, 
and 2 to 3 feet wide. A long, shallow sandy 
stretch of approximately 140 feet lay between. 
The rocks were covered with a short growth of 
dense green algae and the river was entirely 
exposed to the bright sun. By using derris root, 
we obtained this meager sample of a species 
which undoubtedly was common in the Mexican 
portion of this river before its flow had become so 
drastically reduced. 


Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque) 


Black bullheads abundant along Rio 
San Rafael, just above the ranch of Don Rafael 


Blias and in the large reservoir 2 to 3 miles to 


were 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the west. From one pool 25 feet long, 3 to 12 
feet wide and with a maximum depth of about 
43 feet, well over 125 catfish, mostly young, 
were caught and discarded. This pool was cut 
off by a gravel bar from the main stream, about 
5 feet away, and was maintained by a spring 
seepage at its upper end. In the reservoir this 
species is much fished for by the natives. The 
largest specimen we took there weighed 16 ounces. 
Ameiurus melas evidently was introduced at an 
early date for local testimony indicated that 
these catfish were here in 1906. 

The above material appears to represent the 
form currently called A. m. melas (Rafinesque), 
the northern black bullhead, for it typically has 
shorter spines, a heavier body, and perhaps 
fewer (18 to 21, usually 19 or 20) anal rays than 
the southwestern subspecies. 

The southwestern black bullhead, Ameiwrus 
melas catulus (Girard), was semed by J. R. 
Simon from San Bernardino Creek, 1 mile below 
the United States border, on September 10, 
1943 (3 young to adult, 57-151 mm long). The 
same subspecies was caught on April 8, 1944, ina 
pond that lies } mile below the border and a short 
distance west of San Bernardino Creek (5 adults, 
119-209 mm long), by Marvin Frost and John 
Hendrickson. The anal ray counts of these 8 
fish are 20(8), 21(8), and 22(2); the specimens 
with 20 rays have the elongate dorsal and pec- 
toral spines that are believed to characterize this 
subspecies. 

Two other species, which. certainly once in- 
habited Rio San Pedro in Mexico, were not seen 
by us although we did not work the drainage 
exhaustively. They may still survive in Mexico 
or, if not, they may return to this section of the 
river when (and if) more favorable water condi- 
tions prevail again; both species still occur north 
of the United States-Mexico boundary line in 
the Arizona portion of Rio San Pedro. These 
two species are: Pantosteus clarki (Baird and 
Girard), the Gila mountain sucker, and Meda 
fulgida Girard, the scaleless spinedace. 


vou. 41, No. 2 


Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope 


The southeastern bluegill is represented by 3 
adults (102 to 105 mm long) taken by minnow 
seine in San Bernardino Creek, 1 mile south of 
the United States border, in water up to 4 feet 
deep. The broad and comparatively few vertical 
bars and the 12 anal rays of each specimen con- 
firm the reference to this subspecies, which ranges 
from Florida north to North Carolina. A south- 
western form, Lepomis macrochirus speciosus 
(Baird and Girard) is native to western Texas 
and tributaries of Rfo Grande in northeastern 
Mexico. In this subspecies, the modal number of 
anal rays is 10 and the dark bars are narrower 
and more numerous, as in L. m. macrochirus. 
Evidence that purpurescens is being (or has been) 
distributed was obtained by Carl L. Hubbs on 
June 22, 1938, when he visited the Federal 
hatchery at San Marcos, Tex. There he saw 
and obtained (U. M. M. Z. no. 120240) specimens 
of this subspecies, introduced four years earlier 
from the Federal hatchery at Lake Park, Ga., 
which was being reared and hatched at San 
Marcos for transplantation. In life the soft parts 
of the posterior fins, particularly the anal, are 
reddish on the half-grown. This fish, called locally 
“Georgia bluegill,” was being stocked in prefer- 
ence to the native subspecies because it was said 
to grow faster and take artificial food better. 
Perhaps the San Marcos hatchery was the source 
for the sample taken in Sonora, Mexico. 

Although we worked San Bernardino Creek 
from the international line to approximately 2 
miles below the border, this species was neither 
seen nor collected by us on April 24, 1950. The 
creek was very low, however (almost completely 
dry in the United States), and the population of 
bluegills sampled by Simon either may have 
vanished or may now survive only in the lower 
portion of San Bernardino Creek where water 
was reported to be still abundant. 


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IN® dpi eareyy: KUSH ee cere cet Sie eeera erie eee Cerner eect ee W. F. FosHaa, C. L. Gazin 
“Ne dinintnearey IGS} ee res eee een eee H. P. Barss, A. T. McPHERSON 
pRoManiany O54 cece keene nce dees Sara EH. Branuam, J. A. STEVENSON 
BOCTOMOPMVICNOGETS! fas seas cee eae ases All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Board Gf 1{ctaions cpa! ASSOCTHG JHUHIORS. 2 o000000d088000055005000000008 [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. Smitru (chairman), WALTER RamBeErG, H. 8. RAPPLEYE, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SPINDLER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. HE. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Situ, Heinz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... Marcaret PITTMAN (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. CuHapiine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scoenrz, H. W. Weis 

Committee on Monographs: 


To January 1952.....................J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paut H. OEHSER 

IN Ueiwamenray TRS ane ecaam ie o cles SOC Obie Heke eee eiers oa R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

It diarmmaray ION Se om aie dos eta ciclo Ome al aern mn aera 8. F. Buaxg, F. C. Kracexk 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GuoRGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FABER, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwaLLen 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. S. Divx (chairman), ARsHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neuman, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Watton (chairman), F. 8S. Bracksrr, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMititen 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BARNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyi, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHErRson 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.................2055. L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suuiivan, H. L. WairremMore 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


To darmmbiny IE. Soonosens soueewonnedes J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

PRoweamn Wetay BLO Oshima pepe Scene ner rate tyencuslcteve auseriaicee & W. A. Dayton, N. R. Smite 

MRO ATINT AT al OSes anes eeucd wees ssdenebenrereyane <5 H. B. Coutins, Jr., W. W. Rupny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Rowwanweanyal9 520 eee eens ae. M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHErRson 

oan arya LO OSHA ae toy. te ovat ceens revs sisoeionee sustaiste Se eve orsanuscecs A. H. Cuarg, F. L. Monier 

BIN Oye) ey We Taya QA ars eeeteene Fe cucaoic seks os actereso viens sxerauetsuere J. M. Catpwstt, W. L. Scumirr 
lipronesayunane Wp, Counc OF Ale Ala Ale Shoococccscng000dcndanaganocaeoac F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. J. YouDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Mprz, Louise M. Russeuu 


CONTENTS 


B , 4 Page 
ArcHEOLoGY.—A survey of new archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru. 


Prniw Ds CURTING. | seo: Avbdduower teers; 5 ee 49 


PaLEONTOLOGY.—Check list of salinity tolerance of post-Paleozoic fossil 
‘Ostracoda. T.G. SOHN)... 0.2 eee se 64 


Botany.—Peter Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa Santa and pil- 
grimages to his cemetery. ANNA EH. Jenkins, A. A. Brrancourt, 
K. SILBERSCHMIDT, and W. ANDREW ARCHER.................... .. 66 


ZooLocy.—Notes on the undescribed males of two species of Copepoda. 
S. IKRISHNASWAMY 005s). 00 f eee ee ee te bat oe og 75 


ZooLocy.—New cleidogonid millipeds (Chordeumoidea). Nett B. CausEy 78 
IcutHyoLocy.—Additions to the known fish fauna of Mexico: Three species 


and one subspecies from Sonora. RoprErRT RusH MILLER and Howarp 
ELLIOTT WINN: s 5 2 ciecsic ghd os es Fe ee wet esses coe 83 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vou. 41 Marca 1951 No. 3 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


March 1951 


No. 3 


ARCHEOLOGY —Additional data on the Denbigh Flint Complex in northern 
Alaska. RaupH S. Soutecki, Bureau of American Ethnology, and Rosperr J. 


Hackman, U.S. Geological Survey. 


Two especially interesting discoveries of 
artifactual data in the region north of the 
Arctic Circle in Alaska were made during 
the summer of 1950. Both are the recovery 
of specimens typologically similar to the 
Denbigh Flint Complex (Giddings, 1949 and 
MS.), an early flint horizon on the north 
Bering Sea (Fig. 1). One discovery was made 
on a lake at the foot of the Brooks Range! 
by the junior author. His finds were sup- 
plemented by those of George Gryc, who, 
like the former, is with the U. 8. Geological 
Survey. 

This report is a preliminary one, since the 
significance of the data in its entirety can 
not be extracted from the evidence at this 
time. However, this is the second area in the 
north to produce the unique, finely worked 
flints and burins in association with a fluted 
point, all of which may be compared with 
the “mesolithic” flints J. L. Giddings, Jr. 
(op. cit.) has recovered at Cape Denbigh. 
The site discussed in this paper is situated on 
Lake Natvakruak, 73 miles north of the 
mouth of Anaktuvuk Pass, which is one of 
the best migration pass routes through the 
Brooks Range Province to the northern slope 
of Alaska (Solecki, 1950, p. 147). The loca- 
tion of this apparently early occupation close 
to Anaktuvuk Pass leads us to believe that 
this mountain breach was probably then in 
use, just as it is still used by the ‘“‘Nunamiut’” 
Eskimos today. The latter people are the 
survivors of the once large group of inland 
Alaskan Eskimos living north of the Brooks 

1 The other site was located by William Irving, 
a student at the University of Alaska, and is near 
Anaktuvuk River in the pass. 

2 The name that these people give themselves 


according to Robert Rausch, U.S. Public Health 
Service. 


Range. The Nunamiut Eskimos at Anaktu- 
vuk Pass know the lake very well, as their 
ancestors had reportedly known it before 
them. Once teeming with edible fish, the lake 
is now of lessened importance because the 
numbers of fish have decreased. It is sus- 
pected that an ecological change has caused 
this. 

The lake as well as the occupations was 
definitely postglacial, since they lay in a 
morainal area.’ The artifacts were recovered 
close to the surface, barely at the base of 
the tundra roots. The small accumulation 
of soil covering on the site is accounted for 
by a set of interrelated factors, namely, a 
very low annual precipitation (5-7 inches), 
the frigidity of the climate most of the year, 
a very little erosion, and little deposition 
of humus because of scant vegetal life. 

The field party that the junior author ac- 
companied made camp upon the lake shore 
between August 4 and 14, 1950. During 
about three days of this time he found op- 
portunity to check the area for archeological 
data. Actually two occupational areas were 
discovered, called here for convenience, sites 
1 and 2. These were almost at opposite ends 
of the nearly mile long oblong-shaped Lake 
Natvakruak. One site (no. 1) was situated 
at the northern end, and the other (no. 2) 
was near the southern end. A narrow tor- 
tuous stream outlet drains the lake at the 
northeast corner to the Sik-Sik-Puk River, 
thence to the Chandler and Colville Rivers 

3 Recent Carbon-14 dating of the glacial re- 
cession as of about 12,000 vears ago for the Mid- 
west of the United States (Anonymous, 1950, 
p. 243) presents us with a clue to the greatest 
possible age of these northern finds. In effect, 
the archeological guess dates appear to be tele- 
scoped or shortened by this atomic age method. 


APR 9 - ig5y 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


north to the Arctic Ocean. In search for 
clues to possible old strand lines, it was 
revealed that there are evidences of former 
beaches 4 to 6 feet higher than the normal 
lake level. These beach lines are no guar- 
antee of antiquity, however, since the out- 
let may be seasonally choked with ice and 
debris during the spring break-up of the 
ice which would cause the lake level to rise. 
Indeed, the lake seems to be contained within 
the same limits as at the time of the oldest 
occupation there. 

Site 1 lay strung along the top of a small 
morainal ridge which dammed the lake. Sev- 
enteen features were found there, including 
tent rings of stone and cut caribou antlers, 
fire hearths, and similar occupational evi- 
dence, mostly of recent date. Artifacts of 
chipped stone were rare, only 40 chert flakes 
and 3 classifiable stone artifacts having been 
recovered from this site. These specimens 


von. 41, No. 3 


were found in a longitudinal area of about 
180 yards long, or one-third of the extent 
of the site. One of the artifacts, a broad 
black chert flake, was serrated around the 
perimeter (Fig. 2, /). 

The remainder of the stone artifacts were 
found at site 2. This was a narrow morainal 
peninsula 400 yards long that jutted into 
the lake approximately three-fourths of a 
mile to the south and west of site 1. Stone 
artifacts were found in two concentrations 
upon the peninsula. Stone flakes occurred 
generally broadcast over the area. No stone 
tent circles were observed on the peninsula 
proper, although three stone circles were 
found on the mainland. There were also 
indications of recent Eskimo occupations 
on the peninsula and mainland, none of 
which should be confused with the evidence 
of earlier habitat. 

It was beneath the surface-covering of 


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Fic. 1.—Map of northern Alaska showing the locations of Cape Denbigh and Lake Natvakruak. 


Marcu 1951 SOLECKI AND HACKMAN: 


tundra, at a depth of about 5 to 10 inches, 
that the majority of the specimens resem- 
bling the Denbigh Flint Complex artifacts 
were found. Even though most of the data 
were recovered closer to the 10-inch depth, 
this shallowness of deposit contrasts with 
the approximately 7-foot depth at Cape Den- 
bigh where Giddings (op. cit.) recovered 


(00) 
~J 


DENBIGH FLINT 


COMPLEX 


ik, which are typologically similar to the Denbigh 


« 
c 


Flint Complex. 


Representative archeological specimens found at Lake Natvakru 


1D) 


ia. 


his flints. Assuming that there had been no 
time lag in occupation, we can only believe 
that the mechanics of soil formation may 
have been slower in progression north of the 
Brooks Range. 

Of the 97 artifacts submitted to the senior 
author for study, 80 are identifiable with 
Giddings’ early flint horizons. All these arti- 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


facts are of locally derived chert, with the 
exception of 11 lamellar flakes of obsidian. 
Among the finds are the following: one semi- 
polyhedral core from the forward end of 
which were struck lamellar flakes (Fig. 2, a), 
lamellar flakes represented by (Fig. 2, b) and 
(Fig. 2, c), the latter being of obsidian, 
thin curved spawl detached from a finished 
flint edge (Fig. 2, d), a large convex blade 
of ovate shape (Fig. 2, ec), convex end blades 
(Fig. 2, f), finely worked side and end blades 
(Fig. 2, g, h), a convex stemmed blade which 
shows attritional wear (Fig. 2, 7), a long- 
stemmed blade with a broken point showing 
attritional wear on the blade (Fig. 2, 7). 
Fig. 2, k, illustrates a group of 4 out of 13 
artifacts classifiable as burins—a diagnostic 
trait of the Denbigh Flint Complex. Only 
one of the burins recovered shows wear from 
purposeful use as a burin. These artifacts 
were originally side and end scrapers, show- 
ing attritional wear on one or more edged 
sides. Their preparation for use as burins 
was therefore a new functional adaptation. 
Flakes were expertly struck off parallel to 
the long axis at the distal end, forming a 
series of steplike niches in one corner. Among 
the remainder of the illustrated artifacts 
are a serrated flake (Fig. 2, /) which was 
found at site 1, two end scrapers (Fig. 2, m), 
and the poit end of a projectile point, 
fluted on both surfaces (Fig. 2, 7). It is to 
be recalled that Giddings (MS.) has also 
found a fluted projectile point in his recent 
excavations at Cape Denbigh associated with 


vou. 41, No. 3 


artifacts of this complex. At present the 
associations of Folsom with the Denbigh 
Flint Complex are not clear. Although Fol- 
som points do occur in Alaska, no actual 
sites of Folsom occupation like those on the 
western plains of the United States have 
yet been found in the north. 

Of considerable importance is the fact 
that we have another stepping stone in the 
chain of evidence of an ancient trail leading 
from the Bering Straits area into the heart 
of North America. This trail is now more 
literally than figuratively true, since Anaktu- 
vuk Pass is one of the few good through 
routes connecting the Colville River drain- 
age on the north with the drainages flowing 
on the south side of the Brooks Range. This 
evidence, consolidated with other as yet un- 
published archeological data on the north 
slope, bids fair to making this area one of 
the better archeologically known parts in 
Alaska. 


LITERATURE CITED > 


New age for American Man. Sci- 
(16): 243. Oct. 14, 


ANONYMOUS. 
ence News Letter 58 
1950. 

Gippines, J. L., Jr. Early flint horizons on the 
north Bering Sea coast. Journ. Washing- 
ton Acad. Sci. 39 (3): 85-90. 1949. 

Recent finds at Cape Denbigh. Paper 
presented at annual meeting of American 
Anthropological Association, New York, 1949. 
MS. 

SoLEckI, Rateu §S. New 
Eskimo of northern Alaska. 
ton Acad. Sei. 40 (5): 137-157. 


data on the Inland 
Journ. Washing- 
1950. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Dinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious stinging ant. H. A. 


ALLARD, Washington, D. C. 


From late October 1949 until the second 
week in March 1950 I was in Tingo Maria 
and other points in eastern Peru collecting 
herbarium specimens, insects, and other 
natural-history material for the Smithsonian 
Institution at Washineton, D. C. 

Tingo Maria is a small jungle-town in the 
rain-forest region on the east slope of the 
Andes. It is situated in a most beautiful and 
picturesque little mountain-enclosed tropical 
valley through which the Huallaga River 
flows, forming one of the important tribu- 
taries of the great Amazon. 


During my botanical explorations of the 
area I spent much time in the dense tropical 
jungles and deep ravines along the high 
ridges just east and west of Tingo Maria. 
Hardly had I arrived there when I made the 
acquaintance of the huge, black stinging ant 
Dinoponera gigantea. | found it wandering 
about everywhere on the trails and through- 
out the jungle generally. It is a handsome, 
shining black insect an inch or more in 
length and fears no one. My first actual - 
contact with this vicious ant was a most 
painful one. Early one afternoon I attempted 


Marcu 1951 


to pick one up as a specimen to transfer it 
to my killing bottle by using several folds of 
my handkerchief. In spite of this I received 
a severe thrust of its powerful sting into the 
end of my index finger. The pain was soon 
excruciating and lasted until well into the 
night, So severe was the pain that at times 
my hand trembled. The next day there were 
redness and swelling, but no other local 
symptoms were present. The redness and 
swelling soon subsided, but a small black 
spot penetrating deep into the tissues re- 
mained at the site of the puncture for a week 
or more. 

Some weeks later I had a far more painful 
experience with this ant. I had been explor- 
ing the jungle away from the trail, trudging 
through the humus and herbage of the prim- 
itive forest, wearing a pair of low canvas 
tennis shoes of Peruvian manufacture. Some- 
how I had stepped into or disturbed a colony 
of these huge ants as I sank into a bed of 
humus and fallen leafage beside an old decay- 
ing log. Two of the ants stung me at the 
ankle, and in a short time I was in the throes 
of an agony of burning pain—a pain such as 
I have never experienced before, nor ever 
care to repeat as an experience. This was 
early in the afternoon and at suppertime, 
6 p.m., the pain was so intense that I could 
not keep my foot quiet for any length of 
time but was forced even to walk about. It 
had become a most excruciating, throbbing, 
burning pain and lasted far into the might 
until sleep intervened. Next morning the 
pain was nearly gone, but redness, swelling, 
and tenderness of the ankle persisted for 
some days. As in the former instance there 
was no evidence of any local effect on the 
punctured tissues. 

Weeks later while attempting to gather 
blossoms of a liana on a tree trunk about 6 
feet from the ground I placed my right hand 
on another of these ants and received a sting 
in the end of my middle finger. As usual the 
pain was intense and persisted for many 
hours with redness and swelling, but no local 
effects developed as in the two previous 
cases. 

Some months later my son’s little boy, 
not much over three years old, accompanied 
by his father, was paddling in the little brook 
near the house and playing in the sand on 


ALLARD: DINOPONERA GIGANTEA 89 


the bank. Suddenly there was a piercing 
shriek, for he had spied one of these big ants 
and with a child’s curiosity had picked it 
up, with a resulting severe sting. His suffer- 
ing was most intense, for he had been stung 
in the bali of the thumb. There was nothing 
one could do to quiet him, and he screamed 
until far into the evening when sleep finally 
dulled his sensibilities. Next morning there 
was some redness but no local effects were 
noticeable. He had, however, learned a most 
painful lesson, and these ants and other 
insects were regarded with great suspicion 
thereafter. 

The next victim was my son’s cocker 
spaniel, Rusty. This friendly little animal 
often accompanied me into the deep jungles. 
On the day in question we had followed 
nearly a mile up a steep trail, the little dog 
trotting along contentedly just ahead of me. 
Suddenly it gave a Jump and assumed a most 
crestfallen air, rolling around and biting at 
a hind foot. It had stepped upon one of 
these stinging ants and at once showed signs 
of great pain. It no longer had any interest 
in the trip and suddenly bolted down the 
trail for home on three legs. I felt responsible 
for its welfare, so turned back to the house. 
I found the dog lying on the grass in the 
backyard and in great pain. It held its hind 
foot in the air and kicked and bit at it from 
time to time. The animal was whining and 
trembling like a leaf and could not remain 
still. This behavior continued until well into 
the evening, hours after it had received the 
sting. Next day some swelling was evident, 
but no further effects were noticeable. 

Neal A. Weber has published accounts of 
his experiences with the sting of another 
large ant, Paraponera clavata (Fabricius), in 
Venezuela, first in 1937 in the paper ‘‘The 
Sting of an Ant” (Amer. Journ. Trop. Med. 
17 (5). 1937) and later in ‘‘The Sting of the 
Ant, Paraponera clavata” (Science, Feb. 10, 
1939, pp. 127-128). In the first mstance he 
was stung on the knee, and blisters formed 
at the site. These local effects persisted for 
at least a week and the area was red 19-20 
days after the sting was received. In my own 
ase there were no local disturbances such 
as blisters and no systemic effects, as in 
Weber’s experiences. It is probable that dif- 
ferent individuals may show marked ditfer- 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ences in their physiological reactions to these 
stings. 

Throughout the tropical rain forests the 
natives are very familiar with both ants, 
and are very fearful of their vicious stings. 
In his book Ant Hill Odyssey (1948, p. 91), 
Dr. Wiliam M. Mann says that to the 
natives in Brazil Dinoponera grandis (a syn- 
onym of gigantea) is known as ‘‘tocandero,”’ 
and they claim that its sting causes a fever. 

I was told by natives at Tingo Maria that 
the sting of Dinoponera gigantea has put 
people in bed and that it can prove fatal. It 
is much dreaded in this area, as well as else- 
where in those regions where its range 
extends. According to Weber, in the papers 
cited, the sting of Paraponera clavata is con- 
sidered to be fatal, and it is designated by 
the natives as “vente cuatro hormiga,” or 
24-hour ant, because one is thought to die 
in 24 hours after being stung. As is usual in 
such instances, the native mind is prone to 
gross exaggerations, although it is possible 
that allergic individuals may sometimes suf- 
fer very severe reactions, both local and 
systemic, for this actually occurs in the case 
of simple wasp and bee stings in our own 
country. 

My son has two small, white-faced native 
monkeys in a large cage outdoors at Tingo 
Maria, and these are mortally afraid of the 
large stinging ants. Often I have seen these 
ants wandering about on the ground in the 
‘age. The little monkeys take to their perch 
at once and eye the ants below them with 
every evidence of profound fear, and well 
they may. 

The workers and larger queens are equip- 
ped with a sting. Both Dinoponera gigantea 
and Paraponera clavata are ground-inhabit- 
ing species, and I have never seen them very 
far from the ground on tree trunks in the 
jungle. They are usually seen wandering 
singly over the trails and jungle floor, and 
can be met with almost anywhere in such 
situations. These ants appear to be predaci- 
ous hunting species, for on several occasions 
I have seen individuals of Dinoponera gigan- 


vot. 41, No. 3 


fea roaming about with grasshoppers, spiders, 
and other arthropods in their mandibles 
which, presumably, they had captured. 

It would be a nice problem for a good 
organic chemist ‘to study the nature of the 
venom injected by such ants, as well as that 
of various bees and wasps. It is known that 
the venom of different poisonous snakes is 
far from being of identical composition, and 
such may be the case with the stinging ants 
and bees. It may well be something more 
than a mere quantitative difference con- 
cerned with simple formic acid. Perhaps 
there are qualitative differences as in the 
case of the complex venoms of different 
species of snakes. 

In my own experience the effects of the 
sting of Dinoponera gigantea have differed 
somewhat from the stings of bees and wasps 
in our own country and in the Tropics, and 
I have been stung by many species of our 
larger wasps, hornets, and bees and have 
been bitten by some spiders. Usually there is 
a more localized puffing up or swelling at 
the immediate site of the puncture or bite, 
and this may assume a paler or whiter 
appearance than the normal skin shows. 
These ants have never produced such effects 
in my own experience, but only a generalized 
redness and swelling, with an intense pain of 
quite different character. There is one differ- 
ence in the nature of the puncture of this 
ant. Its stinging organ is exceedingly long 
and consequently it appears to be thrust 
more deeply into the tissues. From the ex- 
ceptional intensity of the pain one must 
conclude that a relatively large dosage of 
venom is present, though the constituents 
are unknown. Whatever the character of the 
venom may be, Dinoponera gigantea! is an 
ant that brooks no familiarity and is one to 
avoid, owing to the excruciating pain of its 
powerful sting. 

1 Students of the species have recognized vari- 
etal forms, but I am using the name in a broad 
sense. I am indebted to M.R. Smith, U.S. Bureau 
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, for ant 


identifications and for suggesting references to Dr. 
Weber’s observations. 


Marcy 1951 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 91 


ZOOLOGY .—A revision of the nomenclature of the Gorgoniidae (Coelenterata: Octo- 
corallia), with an illustrated key to the genera. Frepertck M. Bayer, U. S. 


National Musuem. 


A superficial inquiry into the nomencla- 
ture of the Gorgoniidae was sufficient to 
reveal a state of confusion in the systematics 
of that family. Thorough search was there- 
fore begun in order to discover the origin 
of this confusion and means of its clarifica- 
tion. Apparently, the principal source of 
error has been the acceptance of incorrect 
genotypes, without considering the earliest 
valid designations. 

The latest revision of the Gorgoniidae was 
undertaken by Miss Eva Bielschowsky, a 
student of the noted zoophytologist Willy 
Kuikenthal. Her preliminary study, prepared 
as a doctoral dissertation, was published in 
1918; considerably expanded, it appeared 
again in 1929. In these works, Miss Biel- 
schowsky unfortunately overlooked the early 
type designations of Milne Edwards and 
Haime and A. E. Verrill. These oversights 
were in some cases of little consequence, but 
the correction of two of them will greatly 
affect modern concepts of gorgoniid nomen- 
clature. 

The classification proposed in Miss Biel- 
schowsky’s thesis has been accepted without 
question in late years, and the incorrect 
name combinations used therein have be- 
come familiar. However, I feel that asking 
for a suspension of the International Rules 
of Zoological Nomenclature to preserve these 
combinations resulting from superficial re- 
search is not warranted by the limited’ zoo- 
logical interest and importance of the gor- 
gonids. 

The two changes necessary are the sup- 
pression of Rhipidigorgia Valenciennes, 1855, 
as a synonym of Gorgonia Linné, 1758, the 
genotype of both being Gorgonia flabellum 
Linné; and of Xiphigorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime, 1857, as a synonym of Ptero- 
gorgia Ehrenberg, 1834, the genotype of both 
being Gorgonia anceps Pallas. 

The disappearance of the name Rhipidi- 
gorgia could have been prevented had Miss 
Bielschowsky taken the proper precautions 
in her revision. Furthermore, the name 
Xiphigorgia could have been synonymized 
before it had an opportunity to become well 
established in the modern literature. 


To summarize the history of this con- 
fusion: Linné’s genus Gorgonia, 1758, was a 
heterogeneous collection of nine species: G. 
spiralis, ventalina, flabellum, antipathes, cera- 
tophyta, pinnata, aenea, placomus, and abies. 
Of these, three (spiralis, aenea, and abies) 
are antipatharians and do not concern us 
here; one (antipathes) is a plexaurid and one 
(placomus) a muriceid, and were removed 
from Gorgonia by Lamouroux and Ehren- 
berg respectively. In 1834, Ehrenberg 
created Pterogorgia for eight species includ- 
ing Gorgonia acerosa Pallas, G. fasciolaris 
Hsper (var. of cztrina) and G. anceps Pallas. 
In 1850, Milne Edwards and Haime desig- 
nated G. anceps as the type of Pterogorgia. 
In 1855, Valenciennes proposed the genus 
Rhipidigorgia tor those species with anasto- 
mosing branches, but failed to designate a 
type species. Then, in 1857, Milne Edwards 
and Haime established Xzphigorgia for one 
species with trialate and another with whip- 
like branches, Gorgonia anceps Pallas and 
G. setacea Pallas, the first of which they 
had already selected as the type of Ptero- 
gorgia. At the same time these authors 
erected Leptogorgia for several species of 
slender-branched gorgoniids, but, as in 
Xiphigorgia, tailed to indicate a type species. 
Prof. A. E. Verrill in 1868%established with- 
out a type species the genus Litigorgia for 
several species of gorgoniids including two 
with anastomosing branches and five with 
free branches. In a later paper in the same 
year, he designated G. flabellum Linné as 
the type of Gorgona, G. acerosa Pallas as 
the type of Pterogorgia (overlooking Milne 
Edwards and Haime’s selection of G. anceps 
as the type of that genus), L. florae Verrill 
as the type of Lategorgia, and Gorgonia vimi- 
nalis Pallas sensw Milne Edwards and 
Haime as the type of Leptogorgia. A status 
quo obtained until 1918, when Miss Biel- 
schowsky stated in her revision that G. fla- 
bellum was the type of Rhipidigorgia, thereby 
making it an absolute synonym of Gorgonia. 
Had she realized that Verrill already had 
used that species as the type of Gorgonia, 
she might have preserved Rhipidigorgia by 
a judicious choice of genotype species. 


vou. 41, No. 3 


SCIENCES 


ACADEMY OF 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


92 


two lateral rows along stems and branches; low 
verrucae present or absent. Anthocodial arma- 


ture usually a weak crown of small, more or less 


GORGONIIDAE 


Diagnosis.—Holaxonians with branching usu- 


ine, lateral or pinnate, alternate or 


ully in one pl 


flattened rods or spindles which are either warted 


« 
c 


‘ 
c 


opposite; anastomosis of the twigs present or 


or practically smooth. Spicules of the coenen- 
chyma are spindles with regular transverse belts 
of warts, reaching 0.3 mm in length; spindles 


illy infrequent or absent at 


« 
c 


Zooids usu 


ubsent. 
the b 


‘ 
c 


in 


o 
fo} 


« 
te 


ise of colony, and ordinarily occurring 


= 
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Marcu 1951 


with the warts fused to form disks, and peculiar 
bent spindles (scaphoids) occur in certain genera. 
Axis horny, with little or no loculation of the 
cortex. 

Remarks.—The genus Swiftia Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860 (monotype Gorgonia exserta Ellis 
and Solander) [=Stenogorgia Verrill, 1888 (S. 
casta Verrill) =Callistephanus Wright and Studer 
(C. korent Wright and Studer)| should be trans- 
ferred to the family Muriceidae. 


Genus Gorgonia Linné 


Gorgonia (part) Linné, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 
1: 800. [Type G. flabellum L., subs. des. Verrill, 
1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1; 386.] 

not Gorgonia Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
32; Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. deutschen 
Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 852; Kiikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 338; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 174. 

Rhipidigorgia (part) Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 13. [Type, G. flabellum L., 
subs. des. Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
49] 

Rhipidogorgia [sic] Duchassaing and Michelotti, 
1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 33; Kiikenthal, 1916, 
Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 11: 485; Bielschowsky, 
1918, Revis. Gorg.: 49; Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. 
Ergeb. deutschen Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 853; 
Kiikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 350; Deich- 
mann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 192. 


Diagnosis—Colonies with branching in one 
plane developed as one or more flat fans; twigs 
closely anastomosed to form a regular network. 
Zooids in two lateral rows on the twigs, either 
with very low verrucae or retracting flush with 
the coenenchyma surface; anthocodial armature 
of weakly sculptured rods. Coenenchyma spicules 
as girdled spindles and stout scaphoids. 

Genotype —Gorgonia flabellum Linné, 
(subsequent designation: A. E. Verrill, 
Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 386). 


1758 
1868, 


Gorgonia flabellum Linné 
Fiz. 1 


Frutex marinus elegantissimus Clusius, 1605, Exo- 
ticorvm: 120 fig. 

Planta marina retiformis Olearius, 1674, Gottorf. 
Kunst-Kamm.: 69, pl. 35, fig. 2. 

Planta retiformis maxima + Frutex marinus major 
Lochner, 1716, Rar. mus. Besl.: 78, 79, pl. 24 

Flabellum Veneris Ellis, 1755, Essay nat. hist. 
corallines: 61, pl. 26, fig. K. 


Gorgonia flabellum Linné, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 


1: 801; Esper, 1791, Pflanzenthiere 2: 23, pls. 
2-3a; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sei. 48: 424; 
Hargitt and Rogers, 1901, Bull. U. S. Fish. 


Comm. 20 (2): 287, pl. 3, fig. 3. 
Rhipidigorgia flabellum Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 13 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 93 


Rhipidogorgia [sic] flabellum Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 33; Ki- 
kenthal, 1916, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 11: 485; 
Kiikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 350, fig. 
180; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 
16: 194. 


The name by which this species was known 
for many years is hereby restored. Gorgonia 
flabellum was among the first objects of curiosity 
brought back from the New World, and pub- 
lished records of it date back well over 300 years. 
The accompanying illustration of it, perfectly 
recognizable, was published in 1622. 

Valenciennes’ genus Rhipidigorgia was origi- 
nally proposed to include’ all gorgonians with 
anastomosing branches. The characters used for 
generic distinction in the time of Valenciennes 
were necessarily the gross morphological fea- 
tures which could be observed without complex 
optical devices. The importance of the calcareous 
spicules had not even been guessed, and as a 
result it can now be recognized that the original 
concept of Rhipidigorgia included at least three 
genera as distinguished by modern methods. 
The three groups of species include (1) Rhidipt- 
gorgia umbraculum [now in Gorgonella]; (2) R. 
stenobrochis, arenata and cribrum [usually placed 
in Gorgonia|; and (3) R. flabellum, coarctata and 
occatoria [considered to be Rhidipigorgia s.s.]. 
An eighth species, R. laqueus Valenciennes (a 
nomen nudum), is still unrecognizable even as 
to genus, although according to Milne Edwards 
and Haime (1857) it may be Gorgonia sasappo 
var. reticulata Esper (=Echinogorgia pseudo-sa- 
sappo Kolliker). Verrill in 1864 shifted R. wmbra- 
culum to the genus Gorgonella, and in 1868 made 
R. flabellum (.) the type of the original Lin- 
naean Gorgoma. This procedure left Rhipidigorgia 
with only three species, R. stenobrochis, arenata 
and cribrum. When Bielschowsky in 1918, ap- 
parently unaware of Verrill’s earlier action, con- 
sidered R. flabellum as the type species of Rhipi- 


digorgia, she restricted the generic concept to 
include only those forms with reticulating 


branches and secaphoid spicules and made _ it 
synonymous with the Linnaean Gorgonia as re- 
stricted by Verrill. Valenciennes’ remaining spe- 
cles, R. and ‘eribrum have 
therefore been excluded from all deseribed gor- 
gontid genera. Although R. stenobrochis at various 
times has been placed in Leptogorgia, Litigorgra 
and Hugorgia, as limited by the 
designation of their type species cannot include 


stenobrochis, arenata 
those genera 


these three orphan species and the related forms 
subsequently described by Verrill and Hiekson. 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


These reticulate gorgoniids lacking scaphoid spic- 
ules therefore require a new genus, for which 
the name Pacifigorgia is here proposed. 


Pacifigorgia, n. gen. 


Rhipidigorgia (part) Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Aead. Sei. Paris 41: 13; Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 1: 32 (part). 

Litigorgia (part) + Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, 
Amer. Journ. Sei. 45: 414. 

Leptogorgia (part) Verrill, 
Sei. 48: 420. 

Gorgonia Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 32; 
Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. deutschen Tief- 
see-Exped. 13 (2): 852; Kiikenthal, 1924, Das 
Tierreich 47: 338; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. 
Jahrb. Supp. 16: 141; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 174. 


1869, Amer. Journ. 


Diagnosis.—Colony flabellate, branched in one 
plane; the twigs regularly anastomosing to form 
a close network. Zocids retracting within low 
verrucae or flush with the surface of the coenen- 
chyma; anthocodial armature of more or less 
flattened rods usually present. Spicules of the 
coenenechyma are girdled spindles, including: long, 
more or less pointed forms with several belts 
of warts; and short, blunt forms with only 2-4 
belts of warts (‘“‘double heads”’). 

Genotype—Gorgonia stenobrochis Valencien- 
nes =Pacifigorgia stenobrochis (Val.), n. comb., 
here designated. 


Fic. 2.—Pacifigorgia irene, n. gen., n 


vou. 41, No. 3 


Remarks.—This genus includes all those retic- 
ulate forms from the west coast of Central and 
South America previously known as Gorgonia. 
Except for one species from Trinidad and Brazil 
(P. elegans (Duch. & Mich.) =Gorgonia hartti 
Verrill), Pacifigorgia is confined to the eastern 
Pacific, from the Gulf of California to Peru. 
The generic name is chosen to indicate this 
predominantly Pacific distribution of the genus. 


Pacifigorgia irene, n. sp. 
Figs. 2,3 
Leptogorgia adamsii (part) Verrill, 1868, Trans. 
Connecticut Acad. 1: 391. 

Gorgonia media? Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. 
Gorg.: 38; 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 16: 147. 
Gorgonia media Galtsoff, 1950, Special Sei. Rep. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. 28: 27. 


Diagnosis —The colonies form large, broad, 
finely reticulate fans crossed by several very 
stout main branches which can be followed to 
within 2 or 3 cm of the free edge. Zooids occur 
chiefly along the outer edges of the anastomosed 
twigs, and are retractile with small, often 
bilabiate verrucae. Spicules of the coencenhyma 
are long, pointed spindles 0.1—0.13 mm long, 
and short, blunt “double heads” up to 0.075 
mm long; these sclerites are red, yellow or color- 
less. Anthocodial armature a weak crown of flat 
“rods” with broadly scalloped edges, reaching 


. sp. The holotype, about one-fourth natural size. 


Marcu 1951 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 95 


Fic. 3.—a-p, Pacifigorgia irene, n.gen., n.sp.: a, Detail of branching; b-f, long spindles; g-k, short 


spindles or ‘‘double heads’’; [-o0, flat, anthocodial sclerites; p, small capstan from anthocodia. 
Pacifigorgia adamsi (Verrill): Anthocodial sclerites. 


to p only; 0.1-mm scale to all others. 


0.05 mm in length, and small, spindly capstans 
about 0.04 mm long; these spicules are usually 
colorless, but a few may be tinted pink. Color 
of colony rusty purplish red. 

Description.—The type is a broad, flat fan 
about 35 em high and 63 em broad. (A part of 
the colony has been cut away, and its total width 
probably exceeded 70 em.) The twigs are very 
slender, closely and regularly anastomosed to 
form a network of small, squarish meshes 1.5-2.0 


q-u, 
3.0-mm scale applies to a only; 0.03-mm scale 


mm in diameter. Several stout main branches 
flattened in the plane of ramification arise from 
the base and radiate outward across the fan, 
branching occasionally and diminishing in diam 
eter slowly, losing themselves in the meshwork 
only 2 or 3 em from the edge of the colony. 
Zooids do not occur on the flat outer faces o! 
the midribs, but are found in a row along the 
line where the twigs are given off on either side 
The anastomosing twigs are flattened at right 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


angles to the plane of the fan, and along their 
outer edges the zooids form small, hemispherical, 
often bilabiate verrucae; two zooids usually occur 
on the tips of the free, unanastomosed twig ends, 
which are up to 5 mm in length. The color of the 
colony is a rusty purplish red, fading to an ochre 
yellow in some places along the edge of the fan. 

The spicules of the coenenchyma are of two 
types: (1) long, pointed spindles with a promi- 
nent naked girdle and 4-6 belts of warts, reach- 
ing 0.13 mm in length; and (2) short, blunt 
spindles or “double heads” also with a median 
naked space, but with only two belts of warts 
and terminal tufts, reaching about 0.075 mm. 
The coenenchyma spicules are usually red, but a 
few are colorless. In the yellow areas of the 
colony they are mostly pale yellow. The spicules 
of the anthocodia are flat rods with widely 
scalloped margins, reaching about 0.05 mm in 
length. These spicules are almost always color- 
less, but a few may be tinted with pink. There 
are also a few weak, long-armed capstans, which 
are colorless. 

Holotype—U.8.N.M. no. 49365. Punta Paja- 
ron, Panama, lat. 7° 55’ N., long. 81° 38’ W.; 
March 11, 1948, Paul S. Galtsoff, collector. 

Records.—Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica; March 
1927, M. Valerio, collector (49379); Costa Rica 
no definite locality (383611). 

Remarks.—Pacifigorgia irene is perfectly dis- 
tinct from P. adamsii (Verrill), with which it 
was originally meluded. Verrill’s remarks about 
“adult specimens” (1868, Trans. Connecticut 
Acad.1:391) refer to thisspecies. Theseveral speci- 
mens of P. adamsu in the Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology and those in the U. 8. National Mu- 
seum are uniformly small colonies, as are a 
number of the original specimens in Verrill’s 
collection in the Peabody Museum at Yale Uni- 
versity. Unfortunately, the latter have not been 
available for spicular examination, but all are 
of such uniform outer appearance that I have 
no hesitancy im considering them the same. 
The mesh of P. adamsti is about the same as 
that of the new species, but it lacks any trace 
of strong midribs, and the color is purple or 
yellow rather than the rusty purplish red charac- 
teristic of P. irene. In addition, the anthocodial 
spicules of the two species are distinct. Those of 
P. wrene are flat, broad, and almost always color- 
less; those of P. adamsti are round or but little 
flattened, slender, longer than those of P. irene, 
and almost always clear, pale yellow. Figures 
of the anthocodial spicules from both species 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 3 . 
are given in order to make the differences clear. 
The coenenchymal spicules differ less, but seem 
to be a little longer in P. adamsii. 

The specific name is chosen from the Greek 
word eipnvn, peace, in keeping with the deriva- 
tion of the generic term Pacifigorgia. 


Genus Pterogorgia Ehrenberg 
Gorgonia (part) Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 160. 
Pterogorgia (part) Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Kénigl. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 368. [Type G. 
anceps Pallas, subs. des.: Milne Edwards and 
Haime, 1850, Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx.] 
Xiphigorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 171; Kiikenthal, 1916, 
Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 11: 491 (part); Bielsechow- 
sky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 62; Kiikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 357 (part); Deichmann, 1936, 
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 200. [Type, G. 
anceps Pallas, subs. des.: Bielschowsky, 1918, 
Revis. Gorg.: 62.] 


Diagnosis—Colonies more or less richly 
branched, mostly laterally; branches strongly 
compressed, triangular, or square; zooids in longi- © 
tudinal furrows on the edges of rather high, thin 
coenenchymal ridges running along two, three 
or four sides of the stems and branches. Zooids 
small; anthocodial armature a weak crown con- 
sisting of 8 tracts of flattened rods. Coenen- 
chyma with stout, strongly warted spindles and 
blunt scaphoids. 

Genotype—Gorgoma anceps Pallas (by sub- 
sequent designation: Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1850, Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx). 

Remarks.—This genus includes three’ certain 
and one doubtful species, all Antillean. The 
valid species are: 


Pterogorgia anceps (Pallas) 


Corallina fruticosa, ramulis & cauliculis compres- 
Sis, quaquaversum expansis, purpurers elegantiss- 
imis Sloane, 1707, Voyage to Jamaica: 57, pl. 
22, fig. 4. 

Gorgonia anceps Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 
183; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sei. 48: 425. 

Pterogorgia anceps Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Koénigl. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 369. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) anceps Dana, 1846, U. 8. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 648. 

NXiphigergia anceps Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 172; Kikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 357 (part); Deichmann, 1936, 
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 201. 


This is the common, large, purple or yellowish 
species with branches square or triangular in 
cross section. Its branches are never so broad ~ 
and flat as in P. guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelin. 


Marcu 1951 


Pterogorgia citrina (Esper) 


Gorgonia citrina Esper, 1792, Pflanzenthiere 2: 
129, pl. 38; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sci. 48: 
425. 

Pterogorgia fasciolaris + P. Sancti Thomae 
Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Konigl. Akad. Wiss. 
Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 369. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) citrina Dana, 1846, U. 8S. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 648. 

Pterogorgia citrina Duchassaing and Michelotti, 
1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 30. 

Xiphigorgia citrina Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 1: 33; Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tier- 
reich 47: 358, fig. 182; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 201. 


This is the familar, small Pterogorgia with 
flat branches, usually yellow with purple edges, 
sometimes all purple. 


Pterogorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing 
and Michelin 


Pterogorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelin, 1846, Rev. Zool. Soc. Cuvierienne 9: 
218. 


Xiphigorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860, Mém. coral]. Antill.: 33. 
Gorgonia guadalupensis Verrill, 1869, Amer. 


Journ. Sei. 48: p. 425. 
Xiphigorgia anceps (part) Kiikenthal, 1924, Das 
Tierreich 47: 357. 


Specimens collected in the Gulf of Mexico 
during the first and second University of Miami 
Marine Laboratory Gulf of Mexico Sponge In- 
vestigations 1947 and 1948, by Dr. F. G. Walton 
Smith and J. Q. Tierney, have convinced me 
that Duchassaing and Michelin’s species is per- 
fectly distinct and worthy of recognition. I have 
been unable to find specimens of P. anceps 
which grade into it, either in the large series 
in the U. S. National Museum or among speci- 
mens in the field. A complete redescription will 
be published at a later date. 

The specimens of P. guadalupensis examined 
agree perfectly with Duchassaing and Miche- 
lotti’s figure. The species is readily distinguished 
from P. anceps by its very much broader, flat 
branehes which are never trialate. Part of a 
specimen is shown in the accompanying key- 
figure 9, compared with P. anceps. 

A situation similar to that involving Gorgonia 
and Rhipidigorgia exists between Pterogorgia 
Ehrenberg and NXiphigorgia Milne Edwards and 
Haime. In short, the genus Pterogorgia of Khren- 
berg, like many other early genera, was a poly- 
phyletic assemblage, and its species can now be 
divided into at least two modern genera, ap- 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 97 


portioned as follows: (1) P. setosa Esper, acerosa 
[Pallas?] Ehrenberg, stricta Ehrenberg, turgida 
Ehrenberg; and (2) P. fasciolaris Ehrenberg 
(=citrina Esper, var.?), sancti-thomae Ehrenberg 
(2? =citrina Esper), anceps Pallas, and violacea 
Ehrenberg non Pallas [? =anceps]. Ehrenberg 
also assigned questionably Gorgonia americana 
Gmelin, sanguinolenta Pallas [both fide Cuvier], 
and pinnata L. [fide Gmelin] to his Pterogorgia, 
without having seen specimens. Milne Edwards 
and Haime in 1850 designated P. anceps (Pallas) 
as the type species of Pterogorgia, thereby restric- 
ting the genus to the second group mentioned 
above. Completely disregarding the restriction 
which they themselves had imposed, these 
authors created in 1857 a new genus, 
Xvphigorgia, which included Gorgonia anceps, 
and this usage became generally accepted. This 
was undoubtedly due in no small part to the 
fact that the latter arrangement was proposed 
in their well-known Histoire naturelle des coralli- 
aires, whereas the earlier restriction of Ptero- 
gorgia was made in the introduction to their 
Monograph of the British fossil corals, a work 
holding little interest to the student of recent 
Gorgonacea. Consequently, Verrill overlooked the 
delimitation of Pterogorgia and proposed P. ace- 
rosa (Pallas) as the type species of Ehrenberg’s 
genus; this procedure, which applied the name 
Pterogorgia to the first of the two groups men- 
tioned above, subsequently came into general 
acceptance. The generic limits of Xitphigorgia 
were established by Miss Bielschowsky when she 
designated (1918) X. anceps as its type, but she 
failed to perceive that it was then absolutely 
synonymous with Pterogorgia s.s. and that half 
of the original Pterogorgia species were not re- 
ferable to any deseribed genus. This situation 
has remained unchanged, and the species elimi- 
nated from Pterogorgia still require a genus to 
include them, for which I propose the name 
Antillogorgia. 


Antillogorgia, n. gen. 


Pterogorgia (part) Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Konig. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1882 (pt. 1): 868; Milne Ed- 
wards and Haime, 1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 
167 (part); Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
52; Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 351; 
Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 16: 
197; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool, 
53: 193. 
Diagnosis.—Colonies mostly bushy, with the 

secondary branching in one plane; numerous 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


twigs arranged along the main branches in close 
pinnate order, sometimes with secondary twigs; 
stem and branches round or flattened; twigs 
round, or more frequently somewhat compressed. 
Zooids small, not producing verrucae, usually 
arranged in two rows along the edges of the 
twigs; they sometimes occur in rows on the 
large branches and main stems. Anthocodia either 
unarmed or with small, more or less flattened 
rods arranged in 8 triangles to form a weak 
crown. Coenenchyma spicules are scaphoids and 
spindles in the outer layer, spindles alone in the 
inner. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia acerosa Pallas =Antillo- 
gorgia acerosa (Pallas), n. comb., here designated. 

Remarks.—This genus is apparently confined 
to the Antillean region. Its species form one 
of the most conspicuous elements of the littoral 
marine fauna along the reefs of Florida and in 
the West Indies. The most abundant species, 
at least on the Florida coast, is Antillogorgia 
acerosa (Pallas). For a description, see Deich- 
mann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 198. 
It is usually dark purple when alive. A. ellisiana 
(Milne Edwards and Haime) and A. americana 
(Gmelin) are not uncommon in the same re- 
gions. The living colonies are usually brownish 
purple. 


Genus Phyllogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 


Gorgonia (part) Esper, 1791, Pfanzenthiere 2: 1. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) (part) Dana, 1846, U. 8. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 647. 

Phyllogorgia Milne Kdwards and Haime, 1850, 
Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx. [Type, Gorgonia dila- 
tata Esper.] 

Hymenogorgia Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. Acad. 
Sei. Paris 41: 13. (Type, Gorgonia quercus folium 
Ehrenberg = Gorgonia dilatata Esper.| 

Phyllogorgia Verrill, 1912, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia (2)15: 393. 


Diagnosis—Colonies branched in one plane, 
the branches 
anastomosing. 


forming broad, flat leaves; axis 
Zooids small, without verrucae, 
on all surfaces of the leaves. The spicules are 
stout spindles and seaphoids. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia dilatata Esper (by origi- 
nal designation). 

Remarks.—The single species, P. dilatata, is 
found on the coast of Brazil. The single early 
record of its occurrence at Guadeloupe has not 
been confirmed. 


vou. 41, No. 3 


Genus Leptogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 


Gorgonia (part) Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 
160; Milne Edwards and Haime, 1857, Hist. 
nat. corall. 1: 157 (part). 

Leptogorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 163. [Type, G@. vimina- 
lis Milne Edwards and Haime = G. viminalis 
Esper = Leptogorgia longiramosa Kikenthal 
1924; subs. des.: Verrill, 1868, Trans. Con- 
necticut Acad. 1: 387.| 

Lophogorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 167. [Type, @. flam- 
mea Ellis and Solander.]} 

Litigorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Sci. 
45: 414. (Type, ZL. florae Verrill; subs. des.: 
Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 387.| 

Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Sci. 
45: 414. 

?Pseudopterogorgia Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. 
deutschen Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 854. [Type, 
Leptogorgia australiensis Ridley, 1884.] 

Asperogorgia Stiasny, 1943, Vid. Medd. Dansk 
naturh. Foren. 107: 92. [Type, L. radula 
(Mo6bius).] 


Diagnosis.—Colonies mostly branched in one 
plane, lateral or pinnate, occasionally dichoto- 
mous, rarely bushy; branches and twigs some- 
what flattened but never greatly expanded to 
form lamellar ridges. Zooids in two lateral tracts 
along the sides of twigs and branches, fully re- 
tractile or forming low verrucae; anthocodial 
armature of small rods or spindles usually pres- 
ent. Coenenchyma with girdled spindles but no 
modified forms. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia viminalis Milne Edwards 
and Haime (by subsequent designation: Verrill, 
1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 387). 

Remarks.—Bielschowsky’s designation of G. 
petechizans Pallas as the type of Leptogorgia could 
have no standing even if it had priority, since 
that species was not included within the genus 
as originally constituted. 

Leptogorgia contains many species in temperate 
and tropical waters, and although it is represented 
practically around the world, the center of dis- 
tribution seems to be in the neighborhood of 
the west coast of Central America. 

The characters ordinarily used for separating 
Lophogorgia from Leptogorgia, the flattened 
branches and arrangement of zooids all around 
the branches and tiwgs, are so variable as to 
be useless for generic distinctions. Round as well 
as. flattened branches may occur in the same 
colony, and the biserial zooid distribution can 


Marcu 1951 


be found with little difficulty, Furthermore, speci- 
mens of Leptogorgia which are typical in all 
other respects may have zooids distributed all 
around the twigs. The presence of distinct verru- 
eae, the feature used by Stiasny to distinguish 
his Asperogorgia species from the other Lopho- 
gorgias (which he considered as part of Lepto- 
gorgia), is no more reliable. I have therefore 
placed both these genera in the synonymy of 
Leptogorgia. 

Kiikenthal’s Pseudopterogorgia (1919) was cre- 
ated on the strength of some supposed ‘‘klam- 
mern” in four Indo-Pacific species. An examina- 
tion of the original description and figures of the 
type species, P. australiensis (Ridley), suggests 
that Ridley’s original generic assignment of the 
species (Leptogorgia) was correct. The spicules 
are all described as fusiform, and while one of 
the individuals figured is a little curved, it is 
not a very convincing scaphoid. I am therefore 
tentatively synonymizing the genus and refer- 
ring its species back to Leptogorgia. 


Genus Phycogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 
Gorgonia Valenciennes, 1846, Voyage of the 
Venus, Atlas of Zool., Zoophytes: pl. 11, fig. 2. 
Phycogorgia Milne Edwards and Haime, 1850, 
Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx. [Type, Gorgonia fucata 
Valenciennes. | 
Phycogorgia Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 
359. 


Diagnosis.—Colonies bushy, the stems and 
branches strongly flattened and frondose, aris- 
ing from a spreading base. Axis lamellar. Zooids 
small, completely retractile and without arma- 
ture, on the fronds and on the base. Spicules are 
small, blunt, girdled spindles. 

Genotype—Gorgonia fucata Valenciennes, 1846 
(by original designation). 

Remarks.—Only one species is known, occur- 
ving in shallow water from Mazatlan to Chile. 


Genus Eugorgia Verrill 


Lophogorgia (part) G. Horn, 1860, Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 233. 

Gorgonia (part) Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool. 1: 33. 

Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Set. 
45: 414. (Type, H. ampla Verrill; subs. des.: 
Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 386.| 

Eugorgia Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 
1: 406; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 
16: 170. 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE 


OF GORGONIIDAE 99 


Diagnosis.—Branching chiefly in one plane, 
lateral or dichotomous, sometimes bushy. Zooids 
in biserial longitudinal rows, usually without 
anthocodial armature, with or without low ver- 
rucae. The spicules are ordinary spindles, to- 
gether with disk spindles produced by the more 
or less complete fusion of the warts of the median 
2 or 4 belts to form disks. 

Genotype.—Leptogorgia ampla Verrill (by sub- 
sequent designation: Verrill, 1868, Trans. Con- 
necticut Acad. 1: 386). 

Remarks.—Although Eugorgia is now an ex- 
clusively west American genus, two Atlantic 
gorgoniids are apparently related to it. Lepto- 
gorgia virgulata Lamarck and L. setacea (Pallas) 
have spicules identical with the poorly developed 
disk spindles and intermediate forms to be found 
in a number of Hugorgia species. They may be 
relict species of a once widespread Hugorgia, or 
only Leptogorgias developing along Eugorgia 
lines. It remains for future study to determine 
which is actually the case. 


ILLUSTRATED KEY TO THE GENERA 
OF THE FAMILY GORGONIIDAE 


A!, Spicules as spindles of various forms, some of 
which may occasionally be slightly bent, 
but never as true scaphoids, or 
moon’’-shaped spicules: 


“half- 


B'. Branches and twigs not coalescent, but 
free and usually slender: 


Lepro 


CO!, Spicules only regular spindles: 
GORGIA, 


100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 3 


A®. Scaphoid spicules present in addition to 
simple spindles: 


C2. Spicules include spindles with warts more 
or less completely fused to form disks: 
Evueoretia. 


B’, Branches and twigs not coalescent, but 
free and usually slender: 
C1. Branching closely pinnate, the twigs 
slender, round or only slightly com- 
pressed: ANTILLOGORGIA. 


B?. Branches and twigs coalescing to form a 
regular meshwork: PacirrgorGIA. 


C®. Branching not closely pinnate; branches 
and twigs with two, three, or four 
longitudinal, thin, coenenchymal lamel- 
lae, causing them to be flat and blade- 
like, triangular, or square in cross 
section: PreROGoRGIA. 


B%. Branches and twigs flat, foliate: Puyco- 
GORGIA. 


] 


_ B®, Branches and twigs coalescing to form a 
regular network: GoRGONIA. 


Marcu 1951 


B’. Branches and twigs flat, foliate: Payiuo- 
GORGIA. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BrevscHowsky, Eva. EHine Revision der Familie 
Gorgoniidae. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Er- 
langung der Doktorwiirde der Hohen Philo- 
sophischen Fakultiét der Schlesischen Fried- 
rich-Wilhelms-Universitat zu Breslau: 1-66. 
Breslau, 1918. 

Die Gorgonarien Westindiens. Kap. 6, 
Die Familie Gorgoniidae. Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 
16, Heft 1: 63-234, 40 figs., pls. 2-5. 1929. 

Cuusius, Carouus. FExoticorvm libri decem: qui- 
bus animalium, plantarum, aromatum, alio- 
rumque peregrinorum fructuum historiae discri- 
buntur: [10] 1-378 [5], illus. Antverpiae, 1605. 

Dana, JaMes Dwiaut. Zoophytes. U. S. (Wilkes) 
Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 


1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 7: i-vi+ 1-740, 45 
figs., atlas of 61 col. pls. 1846. 
DeicuMann, Evtsapetu. The Alcyonaria of the 


western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zo6]. 53: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936. 


DucHASSAING bE FonsBREsSIN, PuacipE, and 
MicHetin, Harpouin. Note sur deux poly- 
piers de la famille des coraux appartenant aux 
genres Solanderia ef Pterogorgia. Rev. Zool. 
Soc. Cuvierienne 9: 218-220. 1846. 

and Micuexortr, Jean. Mémoire sur les 

coralliaires des Antilles: 1-88, pls. 1-10. Mem. 

Reale Accad. Sci. Torino, ser. 2, 19: 279-365, 

pls. 1-10. 1860. 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 


101 


EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GorTrRIeD. Bettrdge zur 
phystologischen Kenntniss der Corallenthiere 
im allgemeinen, und besonders des rothen 
Meeres, nebst einem Versuche zur physio- 
logischen Systematik de selben. Abh. Konigl. 
[preussischen] Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 
225-880. 1834. 

Euuis, Joun. An essay towards the natural his- 
tory of the corallines, and other marine produc- 
tions of the like kind, commonly found on the 
coasts of Great Britain and Ireland: i-xvii 
+ [5 lvs] 1-103, pls. 1-37 [38]. London, 1755. 

Esper, Eucentus JoHANN CuristorH. Die 
Pflanzenthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur 
mit Farben erleuchtet nebst Beschreibungen 
1-3: i-xii + 1-320; 1-220; 1-285+; Fortset- 
zung 1-2: 1-230; 1-48, 428 pls. Niirnberg- 
1788-1850. [The parts dealing with gorgo- 
nians were published as follows: Vol. 2, pp; 
1-96, 1791; pp. 97-180, 1792; pp. 181-220, 1793. 
pp. 221-304, 1799; Fortsetzung, vol. 1, pp. 
117-168, 1796; pp. 169-230, 1797.] 

Gautsorr, Paut Simon. The pearl oyster re- 
sources of Panama. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Service Special Scientific Report: Fisheries 
no. 28: 1-53, 28 figs. 1950. 

Horn, Greorce. Descriptions of three new species 
of Gorgonidae, in the collection of the Academy, 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 
233. 1860. 

KiKentuan, Witty. Die Gorgonarien Westindi- 
ens. Kap. 2, Uber den Venusficher; Kap. 3, 
Die Gattung Xiphigorgia H. M. Edw. Zool. 
Jahrb., Suppl. 11, Heft 4: 485-503, 13 figs., 
pl. 23. 1916. 

Gorgonaria. Wissenschaftliche Ergeb- 

nisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf 

dem Dampfer Valdivia 1898-99, 13 (2): 1-946, 

318 figs., pls. 30-89. 1919. 

Gorgonarta. Das Tierreich 47: i-xxyviii 
+ 1-478, 209 figs. 1924. 

Linnf, Kart von. Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 
[2] 1-824. Holmiae, 1758. 

LocHNER VON HUMMELSTEIN, JOHANN HEINRICH. 
Rariora muset Besleriani quae olim Basilius 
et Michael Rupertus Besleri collegerunt: [12] 
1-112, pls. 1-40. Norimbergae, 1716. 

Mrine Epwarps, Henri, and Haims, Juues. A 
monograph of the British fossil corals. Part 1. 
Introduction; corals from the Tertiary and 
Cretaceous formations: i-Ixxxv + 1-71, pls. 
1-11. London, 1850. 

———. Histoire naturelle des coralliatres ou pol- 
ypes proprement dits: 1-8, pp. i-xxxjv + 1-826; 
1-633; 1-560; atlas of 36 pls. Paris, 1857. 

Oueartus, ApAM. Gottorfische Kunst-Kammer: {5 
Ivs.] 1-80, pls. 1-87. Schlesswig, 1674. 

Pauias, Peter Srmon. Llenchus zoophytorum sis- 
tens generum adumbrationes generaliores et 
speciterwm cognitarum succtnctas descriptiones 

selectts auctorum synonymis: i-xvi + 

Hagae-Comitum, 1766. 
A voyage to the islands Madera, 

Nieves, S. Christophers and Ja- 


clu 

1-451. 
SLOANE, Hans. 

Barbados, 


102 


maica, with the natural history of the herbs 

and trees, four footed beasts, fishes, birds, in- 

sects, reptiles & c. of the last of those islands 

. 1: [7 lvs] i-cliv + 1-264, pls [4] 1-156. 
London, 1707. 

Sriasny, Gustav. Gorgonaria von Panama. Vi- 

densk. Medd. Dansk naturh. Foren. 107: 59- 


103, figs. 1-16. 1943. 
VALENCIENNES, AcHitip. In A. Dupetit- 
Thouars, Voyage autour du monde sur la 


frégate la Venus, pendant les années 1836-1839. 
Atlas de Zoologie: Zoophytes: pls. 1-15. 
Paris, 1846. 

Extrait dune monographie de la famille 
des Gorgonidées de la classe des polypes. 
Comptes Rendus Séances Acad. Sei. Paris 
41: 7-15. 1855. 

VerRILL, Appison Mery. List of the polyps and 
corals sent by the Museum of Comparative 
Zoblogy to other institutions in exchange, with 


MALACOLOGY .—Recent species of the 
U.S. National Museum. 


The study represented by this paper is the 
third in a series on living relict peleeypods. 
In comparison with Fimbria and Cucullaea, 
the living species of Arctica is well known, 
and many good studies have been made on 
it in several northern Atlantic regions. The 
shellfish surveys of Rhode Island and Mas- 
sachusetts have recently obtained valuable 
information on the ecology of the genus, and 
it is possible that Arctica will soon assume 
commercial importance as an edible clam. 
There have, however, been few attempts to 
make a complete study of the living species. 
The latest review of Arctica is that of Lamy 
(1920, pp. 260-265). 

Arctica, first appearing in the early Creta- 
ceous, has apparently always been confined 
to temperate waters. Since the Cenozoic the 
genus has been confined to Europe and the 
north Atlantic regions. At present there is 
one living species, confined primarily to the 
north Atlantic. 

Arctica has been placed in many different 
superfamilies. On the basis of shell characters 
Arctica most closely resembles some of the 
brackish water genera, as for example 
Batissa. Among the living marine pelecypods 
Arctica resembles the veneraceans. The lack 
of a pallial smus and the development. of 


‘Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


annotations. 
60. 1864. 
Review of the corals and polyps of the 
west coast of America. Trans. Conn. Acad. 
Arts and Sciences 1: 377-567, pls. 5-10. 1868- 
71. [Actual dates of publications are: pp. 
377-390, April 1868; pp. 391-398, June 1868; 
pp. 399-414, July 1868; pp. 415-422, December 
1868; pp. 423-454, January 1869; pp. 455-478, 
February 1689; pp. 479-502, March 1869; pp. 
503-518, April 1870; pp. 519-534, Nov. 1870; 
p. 567, February 1871.] 

Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps in 
the museum of Yale College, with descriptions 
of new genera. Amer. Journ. Sei. 45: 411— 


Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 1: 29- 


415. 1868. 
———. Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps, 
no. 8. Amer. Journ. Sci. 48: 419-429. 1869. 


The gorgonians of the Brazilian coast. 
Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (2) 15: 
373-404, 1 fig., pls. 29-35. 1912. 


veneroid pelecypod Arctica.! Davip NIcoL, 


posterior lateral teeth are morphologic char- 
acters present in Arctica but not in the ven- 
eraceans. 


Family Arcricipar Newton, 1891 
Genus Arctica Schumacher, 1817 


Venus Linné, 1767 (in part). 

Pectunculus da Costa, 1778 (in part)? ~ 
Cyclas Link, 1807, not Cyclas Bruguiére, 1798. 
Cyprina Lamarck, 1818. 

Armida Gistel, 1848, not Armida Risso, 1826. 
Cypriniadea Rovereto, 1900. 


Genotype: Arctica vulgaris Schumacher, 1817 
= Venus islandica Linné, 1767 (monotypy). 

In 1752 Moehring used the name Arctica for a 
genus of birds, but this work and the translation 
published in 1758 have been suppressed (see 
opinion 5, vol. 1, pt. 14, 1944, pp. 115-126). 
Schumacher’s genus name Arctica, published in 
1817, can thus be used. Lamarck applied the 
French vernacular term Cyprine in 1812 but did 
not use the name Cyprina until 1818. 


Arctica islandica (Linné), 1767 
Figs. 1-3 


1767. Venus islandica Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1 
(pt. 2): 1181. 
1777. Venus mercenaria Linné, Pennant, British 
zoology 4, Mollusca: 94, pl. 53, fig. 47. 
78. Pectunculus crassus da Costa, British con- 
chology: 188, 184, pl. 14, fig. 5. 


Marcu 1951 


1778. 


1818. 


1830. 


1903. 


1910. 


Venus buccardium Born, Rerum naturalium 
Musei Caesarei Vindobonensis, pt. 1, Tes- 
tacea: 49, 50. 


. Venus bucardium Born, Rerum naturalium 


Musei Caesarei Vindobonensis, pt. 1, Tes- 
tacea: 63, pl. 4, fig. 11. 


. Venus islandica Linné, Roding, Museum 


Boltenianum: 180, no. 284. 


. Venus ferréensis Réding, Museum Bolteni- 


anum: 180, no. 285. 


.Cyclas islandica (Linné), Link, Beschrei- 


bung Rostock Sammlung: 150. 


. Arctica vulgaris Schumacher, Essai nouveau 


systéme habitations vers testacés: 145, 
146, pl. 13, figs. 3a, b. 

Cyprina islandica (Linné), Lamarck, Ani- 
maux sans vertébres 5: 557, 558. 

Cyprina vulgaris (Schumacher), James 
Sowerby, Genera of Recent and fossil 
shells, Cyprina: pl. 67. 

Cyclas islandica (Linné), Dall, 
fauna of Florida: 1500-1502. 

Cyprina islandica var. inflata Odhner, Ark. 
for Zool. 7 (4): 19, figs. 33, 34. 


Tertiary 


NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF ARCTICA 


103 


1920. Cyprina islandica (Linné), Lamy, Journ. 
Conchyl. 64 (4) : 262-265. 


A more complete synonymy is given by Lamy 
(1920, pp. 262-264) and need not be repeated 
here. 

Description.—Shell porcellaneous, often chalky, 
periostracum black, light brown, or rarely red- 
dish-brown in color, light brown on small shells, 
smooth except for raised concentric lines; orna- 
mentation consists of concentric lines of growth; 
valve outline subcircular, equivalve, subequi- 
lateral, not gaping; beaks prosogyrate; ligament 


opisthodetic, parivincular, external, connected 


: : AI AIII 3a 1 3b PI 
to the periostracum, hinge formula “179, 95 46 PIT” 


eyrenoid; pallial line integripalliate, adductor 
muscle scars subequal; interior ventral border 
smooth. 


Measurements in mm.— 


Frias. 1-3.—Aretica islandica (Linné),U.S.N.M. no. 128966a: 1, Interior, lett valve; 2, 
valve; 3, exterior, right valve. All figures 


>? 


interior, right 


3° natural size. 


104 


Convexity 
U.S.N.M. no. Length Height (both values) 
201566a 106.4 100.5 61.9 
34431 99.1 95.5 51.3 
201566 97.3 92.2 59.1 
102047 96.1 92.0 56.3 
34431a 92.9 86.2 42.5 
461553 85.4 78.0 47.0 
27256a 82.6 76.7 41.4 
304728a 81.7 76.5 48.3 
201577 80.0 78.0 43.3 
128966a 77.5 70.2 37.0 
225762 76.9 68.7 39.5 
225764a 75.3 67.6 40.1 
128966b 74.6 69.5 34.8 
461553a 67.8 62.5 34.0 
128966¢ 67.8 62.4 33.7 
128966 62.3 56.5 30.6 
27258b 61.2 55.8 33.7 
225764¢ 58.8 54.3 30.3 
225764b 52.8 46.5 24.8 
272258a 45.9 40.0 23.7 
499954a 44.4 40.3 22.3 
45985 44.3 41.1 22.6 
45991 42.1 38.2 22.8 
181970a 41.4 36.7 19.8 
35666 39.6 36.2 21.4 
158995 23.9 21.3 13.3 
40146b 21.0 19.4 10.0 
40146a 17.8 16.1 9.0 
153164a 12.0 10.4 5.9 
153164 8.4 8.0 4.5 


The above measurements seem to indicate no 
tendency toward more convex shells in northern 
waters or cooler bottom temperatures. There may 
be, however, some relationship between the type 
of substrate and convexity, the more convex 
shells being found on the muddier bottoms. 
More data are necessary to ascertain whether any 
relationship exists between living conditions and 
shape of shell. 

Number of specimens—There are approxi- 
mately 1,000 specimens of Arctica islandica in the 
collection of the United States National Museum. 
Many of the specimens are small shells obtained 
by dredging. 

Locality data.—Specific localities are so nu- 
merous that it is not practical to list each one, 
and general information on geographical distribu- 
tion is sufficient for this problem. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION and ECOLOGY 
of ARCTICA ISLANDICA (LINNE) 


This species has been mentioned in most 
faunal lists of mollusks taken from northern 
Atlantic localities. Despite these consider- 
ably extensive observations, the distribution 
of living Arctica islandica is not well known. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


There have been several great temperature 
fluctuations in the northern Atlantic durmg 
the Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene, and col- 
lectors have taken shells and recorded them 
in faunal lists, although Arctica islandica 
might not be living in some of those areas to- 
day. Accurate locality information on living 
specimens, furthermore, is the most impor- 
tant criterion for interpreting climatic condi- 
tions during Pliocene, Pleistocene, and post- 
Pleistocene times. 

Arctica occurs as far south as Cape Hat- 
teras, N. C., but is quite rare from there 
northward to Long Island Sound. Along the 
coasts of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and 
Maine, Arctica is abundant. It is frequently 
found in the Bay of Fundy, Halifax Harbor, 
and Northumberland Strait. There are a few 
records of Arctica in Chaleurs Bay and off 
the southern coast of Newfoundland. A few 
valves of Arctica have been collected off the 
coasts of Labrador and Greenland, but these 
are believed to be subfossil (Jensen, 1912, 
p. 90). The genus is abundant on the coasts 
of Iceland, the Faroes, the Shetlands, the 
British Isles, and the coast of Norway. Arc- 
tica also occurs off the Kola Peninsula and 
in the White Sea. There are a few records of 
shells collected north and east of the White 
Sea as far as Novaya Zemlya, but these 
shells are probably also subfossil. There are 
reports of Arctica occurring as far as Born- 
holm Island in the Baltic Sea, but shells 
from the Baltic are generally rather thin, 
and the reduced salinity probably prevents 
the genus from living farther north and east 
i. the Baltic region. Arctica islandica 1s 
abundant along the coast of northern France. 
South of Brittany Arctica is rarely reported, 
but it has been found as far south as the 
Bay of Cadiz. Occurrences in the Mediter- 
ranean are probably all subfossil. 

Arctica is a boreal but not an arctic genus. 
It can not live for probably more than a few 
hours in waters which go below 0°C. Arcisz 
et al. (1945, p. 15) recorded Arctica living at 
0.7°C. Perhaps for this reason the genus is 
not circumpolar and is not found in the 
coldest waters of the Atlantic Ocean. On the 
other hand, the highest temperature which 
Arctica can withstand is about 19°C. 


105 


RECENT SPECIES OF ARCTICA 


. 


NICOL 


Marcu 1951 


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106 


Recent observations on living specimens 
by Turner (1949, pp. 15, 16) have shown 
that Arctica is always found on sandy mud 
or mud bottoms, although Madsen (1949, 
p. 50) claimed that in Iceland the genus is 
found on ooze, mud, clay, sand, gravel, and 
shell bottoms. It can be said with certainty, 
however, that Arctica is nearly always found 
on sandy mud or mud bottoms, and this 
statement is based on many observations by 
many workers. 

I have recorded 98 dredging stations, 
rangmg from Halifax to Cape Hatteras, 
where Arctica was taken by the U.S. Bureau 
of Fisheries. The greatest depth from which 
Arctica was dredged was 482 meters; the 
next greatest depth was 360 meters. The 
remaining 96 stations were at depths of 281 
meters or less, and one station was only 13 
meters in depth. Contrary to some observa- 
tions made in the past, the small shells were 
not found at the greater depths, and large 
and small shells seemed to be found at all 
recorded depths. In the Firth of Forth the 
genus has been collected alive at the lowest 
of low tides (Forbes and Hanley 1853, p. 
445). Generally, however, it is most com- 
monly found at depths from 10 to 280 me- 
ters, but it is occasionally found as deep as 
500 meters. Off the coast of Rhode Island, 
Arcisz et al. (1945, p. 9) found the greatest 
concentration of the genus at depths ranging 
from 25 to 45 meters and did not find living 
specimens in less than 18 meters of water. 
In colder water Arctica apparently is abun- 
dant at shallower depths. 

Reports of young shells of Arctica having 
been taken m more than 1,000 meters of 
water should be reinvestigated. A specimen 
from the Jeffrey’s collection (no. 201564) is 
labeled Cyprina islandica L. (fry), taken 
fron the northwest coast of Ireland at a 
depth of 1,215 fathoms. This tiny specimen 
is almost impossible to identify, but it does 
not appear to be Arctica. 

Acknowledgments —I am greatly indebted 
to William J. Clench, of the Museum of 
Comparative Zoédlogy at Harvard College, 
for information on geographical distribution, 
and to Harry J. Turner, Jr., of the Woods 
Hole Oceanographic Institution, for valuable 
data on the ecology of Arctica. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


REFERENCES 


Arcisz, W., Nevitite, W. C., DeEWo tr, R. A., and 
Loosanorr, V. L. The ocean quahog fishery of 
Rhode Island: 31 pp., 10 figs. Dept. Agriculture 
and Conservation, Rhode Island, 1945. 

Costa, E. M. pa. The British conchology: 254 pp., 
17 pls. London, 1778. 

Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of 
Florida. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 3 (pt. 
6): 1219-1654, pls. 48-60. 1903. 

. Note on Cyprina islandica. Proc. Malacol. 
Soc. London, 10 (pt. 4): 286 1913. 

Forses, K., and Hanuey, 8. A history of British 
Mollusca and their shells 1: 486 pp., 64 pls., 
London, 1853. 

GisteL, J. Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs fiir 
hohere Schulen: 216 pp., 32 pls. Stuttgart, 
1848. 

Hemmina, F. Opinions and declarations rendered 
by the International Commission on Zoological 
Nomenclature (Opinion 5, The status of certain 
pre-Linnean names reprinted subsequent to 
1757) 1 (pt. 14): 115-126. London, 1944. 

JENSEN, A. S. Studier over nordiske Mollusker. IT, 
Cyprina islandica. Naturh. Forening Kjoben- 
havn Vid. Medd. 1902: 33-42. 

. Lamellibranchiata (part 1), The Danish 
Ingolf-Expedition 2 (5): 119 pp., 5 figs., 4 pls. 
Copenhagen, 1912. 

Lamarck, J. B. Histoire naturelle des animaux 
sans vertébres 5: 612 pp. Paris, 1818. 

Lamy, I. Révision des Cypricardiacea et des Iso- 
cardiacea vivants du Muséum d’Histotre natu- 
relle de Paris. Journ. Conchy]. 64 (4) : 259-307. 
1920. 

Link, H. F. Beschreibung der Naturalien-Samm- 
lung der Universitat zu Rostock: 1-165, 1-30, 
1-38, 1-88. Rostock, 1806-1808. 

Linné, K. von. Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1 (pt. 
2): 5383-1327. Holmiae, 1767. 

Mapskn, F. J., The zoology of Iceland 4 (pt. 63, 
Marine Bivalvia) : 166 pp., 12 figs. Copenhagen 
and Reykjavik, 1949. 

Opuner, Nius. Marine Mollusca in the collections 
of the Swedish State Museum, Ark. for Zool. 7 
(4): 31 pp., 1 pl. 1910. 

Rovereto, G. Lllustrazione det molluschi fossili 
Tongriani, ete. Atti Reale Univ. Genova 15: 
31-210, 9 pls. 1900. 

ScHuMACHER, C. F. Essai d’un nouveau systéeme des 
habitations des vers testacés: 287 pp., 22 pl., 
Copenhague, 1817. 

Smitu, . A. On the generic name to be applied to 
the Venus islandica, Linn. Proc. Mal. Soe. 
London 10 (pt. 2): 105, 106. 1912. 

Turner, H. J., Jr. Report on investigations of 
methods of improving the shellfish resources of 
Massachusetts: 22 pp., 5 figs. Commonwealth 
of Massachusetts, 1949. 


Marcu 1951 WELANDER AND SCHULTZ: 


CHROMIS ATRIPECTORALIS 


107 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish from the tropical Pa- 
cific, closely related to C. caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. ARrHUR D. We- 


LANDER and LEONARD P. ScHULTZ. 


During our studies of some Bikini fishes 
at the University of Washington, Seattle, we 
were surprised to observe that the blue-green 
damselfish, which occurs so abundantly in 
shallow waters of the reefs throughout the 
tropical Indo-Pacific faunal area, was a com- 
plex of two species. This paper describes one 
of these as new and presents data for the 
separation of the two species. 


Chromis atripectoralis, n. sp. 


Chromis caeruleus (in part), Jordan and Seale, 
Bull..U. S. Bur. Fish. 25 (1905): 290, pl. 46, ? 
fig. 1. 1906 (Samoan Islands; color descriptions 
for specimens numbered 2, 4, and 6, with péc- 
toral axil black appear to be this new species) ; 
Montalban, Pomacentridae of the Philippine 
Islands, Monog. Bur. Sci. Manila, no. 24: 35, 
pl. 8, fig. 2. 1927 (Philippine Islands). 

Heliastes lepidurus Giinther, Fische der Siidsee, 
Journ. Mus. Godeffroy 15 (pt. 7): 238 (in part), 
pl. 128, fig. C.1881. es) 


Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 112397, Bikini Atoll, 
Eman. Island, channel reef, July 17, 1947, S-46- 
405, Schultz, Brock, Hiatt and Myers, standard 
length 67 mm. 

Paratypes.—The following paratypes are from 
Guam in the Marianas Islands: U.S.N.M. no. 
124104, Tumon Bay, July 10, 1945, R. H. Baker, 
48 specimens, 9 to 25 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152557, 
Tumon Bay, December 10, 1945, L. Gressitt, 2 
specimens, 48 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152558, Tumon 
Bay, January 8, 1946, Gressitt and Ingram, 35 
specimens, 37 to 60 mm. 

The following paratypes are from the Marshall 
Islands: U.S.N.M. no. 141041, Bikini Atoll, Eman 
Island, July 17, 1947, S-46-405, Schultz, Brock, 
Hiatt, and Myers, 5 specimens, 61 to 76 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 112395, Rongerik Atoll, Latoback 
Island, June 28, 1946, S-46-238, Schultz and 
Herald, 11 specimens, 23 to 44 mm; U.S.N.M. 
no. 112396, Rongelap Atoll, Naen Island, July 
30, 1946, 8-46-3802, Herald, 33 specimens, 30 to 
70 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 1410388, Eniwetok Atoll, 
Aaraanbiru Island, June 3, 1946, S-46-198, 
Schultz, 8 specimens, 28 to 67 mm; Chicago Nat. 
Hist. Mus. no. 44703, Bikini Island, August 14, 
1946, S-46-349, Herald, 20 specimens, 22 to 65 
mm; C.N.H.M. no. 44704, Rongelap Atoll, mi- 


aetok Island, July 20, 1946, S-46-267, Herald and 
Brock, 11 specimens, 31.5 to 61 mm; C.N.H.M. 
no. 44705, Rongerik Atoll, Latoback Island, Aug- 
ust 14, 1946, 8-1041, Schultz, Brock, and Donald- 
son, 2 specimens, 31 to 49 mm. 

The following paratypes are from the Philip- 
pine Islands, collected by the Albatross: U.S.N.M. 
no. 96435, Langao Point, Luzon, June 24, 1909, 
1 specimen, 70 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152552, Little 
Santa Cruz Island, May 28, 1908, 2 specimens, 69 
to 74mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152551, Dodepo Island, 
Celebes, November 19, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96455, Tamahu Island, December 
12,1909, 1 specimen, 71 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96427, 
Tara Island, December 14, 1908, 2 specimens, 52 
and 64 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152549, Alimango 
Bay, Burias Island, March 5, 1909, 1 specimen, 
63 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152550, Makyan Island, 
November 29, 1909, 1 specimen, 69 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96460, Port Palapag, June 3, 1909, 
2 specimens, 61 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152553 
Bubuan Island, Jolo, February 14, 1908, 2 speci- 
mens, 47 and 57 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152548, 
Langao Point, Luzon, June 24, 1909, 4 specimens, 
47 to 66 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96423, Port Palapag, 
June 3, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
96410, Pararongpang Island, June 11, 1909, 5 
specimens, 47 to 65 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96473, 
Mactan Island, Cebu, March 25, 1909, 1 speci- 
men, 82 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96440, Limbones 
Cove, February 8, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96484, Candaraman Island, Jan- 
uary 4, 1909, 1 specimen, 64 mm; U.S.N.M_ no. 
96477, Biri Channel, June 1, 1909, 1 specimen 59 
mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96437, Biri Channel, June 1, 
1909, 2 specimens, 59 and 61 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
96432, Philippines, | specimen, 50 mm; U.S.N.M. 
no. 96447, Guntao Island, December 20, 1908, 1 
specimen, 52 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96453, Ligpo 
Point, Belagam Bay, June 18, 1908, 1 specimen, 
31 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96469, Maculabo Island, 
June 14, 1909, 1 specimen, 48 mm; U.S.N AM. no. 
96452, Sabalayan, Mindoro, December 12, 1908, 
1 specimen, 47 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96468, Port 
Langean, Palawan Island, April 8, 1909, 1 speci 
men, 38 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152547, Candaraman 
Island, Balabac, June 4, 1909, 1 specimen, 47 mm. 

The following paratypes were collected in var 


108 


ious localities: U.S.N.M. no. 152554, Fiji Islands, 
1 specimen, 37 mm.; U.S.N.M. no. 72715, Java, 
collected by Bryant-Palmer, 1 specimen; U.S.- 
N.M. no. 65463, Manga Reva, February 4, 1905, 
Albatross, 26 specimens, 38 to 70 mm; U.S.- 
N.M. no. 152555, Samoan Islands, Jordan and 
Kellogg, 5 specimens, 43 to 80 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
152556, Samoan Island, Tutuila Island, Pago Pago 
Bay, June 2, 1939, 11 specimens, 39 to 59 mm. 

The following paratypes were collected by the 
University of Washington group in the Marshall 
Islands: Eniwetok Atoll, Rigili Island, July 24, 
1948, 1 specimen, 47 mm; Eniwetok Atoll, Rigili 
Island, August 10, 1949, Welander, 1 specimen, 
53 mm; Bikini Atoll, Ion Island, August 7, 1947, 
1 specimen, 62 mm; Bikini Atoll, Airy Is'and, 
August 14, 1947, 1 specimen, 57 mm; Bikini 
Atoll, Amen Island reef, July 31, 1947, 1 speci- 
men, 77 mm; Bikini Island, August 1, 1946, 5 
specimens 60 to 77 mm, Bikini Island, July 24 
1947, depth 33 feet, 13 specimens, 36 to 83 mm; 
Likiep Atoll, Likiep Island, August 22, 1949, 
11 specimens, 27 to 52 mm; Rongerik Atoll, 
Latoback Island, August 16, 1947, 1 specimen, 
28 mm. 


Fie. 1.—Chromis atripectoralis, n. sp., a black 
and white print of a kodachrome picture taken of 
the holotype at Bikini. 


Description —Dorsal fin rays XII, 9 or 10 
(usually 10); anal II, 9 or 10 (usually 10); pee- 
torals u, 16 to 19 (usually 17 or 18); pelvies I, 
5; branched caudal rays 7 + 6; transverse scale 
rows 24 to 27 from upper edge of gill opening to 
base of caudal rays; 2 between lateral line and 
origin of dorsal, 9 between lateral line and origin 
of anal; dorsal lateral line with 15 or 16 tubular 
scales; gill rakers on first gill arch, 6 to9 + 1 + 19 
to 22, total 28 to 31. 

Depth of body 2.0 to 2.2, length of head 3.1 
to 3.6, both in standard length (tip of snout to 
base of middle caudal rays); snout 3.5 to 4.0, eye 
2.8 to 3.3, least preorbital width 7.0 to 8.0, length 
of upper jaw 2.5 to 2.9, postorbital part of head 
(hind margin of eye to upper edge of gill opening) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


2.2 to 2.5, interorbital width 2.9 to 3.1, least 
depth of caudal peduncle 2.0 to 2.3, length of 
pectoral fin 1.2 to 1.3, length of pelvic fin 1.2 to 
1.3, length of second dorsal spine 2.0 to 2.3, 
length of upper caudal rays 0.6 to 1.0, lower 0.7 
to 0.9, all in length of head (tip of snout to pos- 
terior margin of opercular membrane); depth of 
caudal peduncle into length of caudal peduncle 
1.1 to 1.4; angle of upper profile with lengthwise 
axis of body 33° to 48°, profile straight to convex. 

Teeth of jaws conical, widely spaced, an outer 
row enlarged teeth, in lower jaw these projecting 
anteriorly near symphysis, a few teeth at sides 
near tip of lower jaw curve out posteriorly; inner 
teeth minute in single row in upper jaws, forming 
small patches of very minute teeth on either side 
of symphysis in lower jaw; snout scaled to tip, 
line from eye, including nostril and along upper 
edge of preorbital naked; preorbitals and sub- 
orbitals scaled, lower margin of latter almost en- 
tirely obscured; preopercle produced at angle, its 
posterior margin entire with some irregular crenu- 
lations observable at angle in many specimens; no 
scales on bases of soft dorsal and anal; upper and 
lower caudal rays filamentous, 3 free spines on 
upper and lower caudal base; profile angle, meas- 
ured with one side of angle lying along closed 
lower jaw to tip of snout and the other side from 
snout to nape directly above gill opening, 80° 
to 96°. 

Color vn alcohol.—Head and upper half of body 
bluish gray to brown; lower sides and_ belly 
lighter, pale to silvery; a narrow dark to bluish 
line from eye, just under nostril toward middle of 
snout along naked area; iris faintly bluish; spiny 
dorsal membrane more or less dusky, this some- 
times accentuated basally and distally, spines 
dusky; lips, especially at tips of jaws dusky to 
black; soft dorsal and anal rays dusky, membranes 
lighter; upper and lower caudal rays brownish, 
middle rays dusky basally, pale distally; pelvics 
pale to dusky; pectorals pale except at base where 
upper rays are dusky to blackish, axil of pectoral 
with large black blotch, this broadest on dorsal 
portion and usually not extending to lower rays; 
in young less than 40 mm in standard length axil 
of pectoral dusky to black. 

Color when alwwe.—Top of head and back bright 
bluish green; a narrow blue-green line across upper 
part of eye to snout and a second line from an- 
terior margin of eye just below nostril to snout; 
lower half of head, sides of body and belly pure 
white or grayish white; spiny dorsal smoky pur- 


Marcu 1951 


plish; soft dorsal and anal rays dusky, membranes 
faintly yellowish; upper and lower caudal rays 
greenish, outer margins blackish, middle rays 
greenish on scaled portion, yellowish on naked 
portion, pelvics greyish; pectorals clear hyaline 
except upper ray dusky. 

Remarks —This new species may be differ- 
entiated from C. caeruleus on the basis of two 
striking characters: The black axil of the pectoral 
fin and by more branched pectoral rays (see table 
of counts) usually 17 or 18 in atripectoralis, 
whereas caeruleus usually has 15 or 16. The pec- 
toral axil of caeruleus is pigmented with black 
dots forming a dusky area only along the dorsal 
part, thence fading ventrally where no pigment 
cells occur or only a few, whereas atripectoralis 


WELANDER AND SCHULTZ: CHROMIS 


ATRIPECTORALIS 109 
has a black axil and the individual black pigment 
cells are not isolated when viewed under mag- 
nification, the outer edge of this black axil sharply 
contrasts with the pale distal part of the axil. 
On specimens shorter than about 30 mm. in stand- 
ard length the axil is not quite as black as in 
longer specimens. We note that the distal margin 
of the spiny dorsal fin of atripectoralis may have 
a dusky to blackish line whereas that of caeruleus 
is pale. 

Although most of the descriptions in the litera- 
ture for these blue-green damsel fishes fail to 
mention the colorations of the pectoral axil, a few 
do so and show the spiny dorsal fin with a dark 
margin. We have listed a few such references in 
the synonymy. 


TaBLe 1.—Counts MabE On Two Species or CHROMIS 


| Number 
Number of fin rays of Number of gill rakers on first arch 
vertical 
Species and locality Soa 
| Dorsal | Anal | Pectoral Thaoail pee eae Below angle 
line | 
XII) 9 |10 IT 9 |10/ ii 15 16 17/18 19 24 25 26 27| 6 7/8|9| 1 |19'20 21 22 23/24 
Ileal | ie 
C. caeruleus: 
Marshallpliclands erate crr sci eee ra aac cer - | 18°) 3)15)18;—)18'42} 832) 2—— —/ 3 19; 8—|/ 4) 7] 1) 12) |——| 5} 6) 1j— 
MamiamastIslands. 2s. 022.2 ees sbsne sade: | aS 1 a Lo = 
ehilippinedslan dss ans stevia a eerie: = ———— —16 Fh} il jst le 
Phoenix and Samoan Islands........ eae ae -....{ 6 | 1) 5} 6] 1) 5) 38} 1) 2———|— —— — — — | § 6 |—|—| 2] 2} 1 
DG alo ao gaa eiiece acepiy claire Se 24 | 4 20 24] 1 23 83:14 62) 7— ——| 3.19 8—| 412! 2) 18 |—|—| 7| 8) 2) 1 
C. atripectoralis: | 
Mars hallBislandsteerrvatace sais site cuter ee 16 | 1:15 16) 1 15 31 —| 2.11/21] 1] 4,10 10] 7] 1| 3,10, 1| 15 1| 4) 7) 3—|— 
Marianas Islands................-..-0-0020000005- Se i ol Se = PS 
Pivibpoype® WOhyNClS: soanueseecoconscqcadacescuseen — -—-———— 16——| 8} s—— — ——————|) — -—— eel 
Phoenix and Samoan Islands..............-...-. 4 || 4] 4) 2] 2} 5 4) 1 1 1 | = a 
ANOLIANL 2: 2 So Ot eel re ee noe Pl 20 119 20 317,73 — 3 2349) 2| 4 1110 1) 3,10} 1} 15 1| 4 a Si 


TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS RECORDED 


FOR Two SPECIES OF CHROMIS (EXPRESSED IN THOUSANDTHS OF 


THE STANDARD LENGTH) 


C. atripectoralis 
C. caeruleus 
Measurements BanWAeall Bikini Atoll eee 
ji eee Paratype 
Paratype | Paratype | Paratype Holotype | 
Standard length in millimeters...........2... 30.2 45.0 58.7 31.1 46.1; 52.3 | 67 | 40.5 
Greatestiaepthroimbod yards nieaanee 464 449 477 | 462 | 475 | 470 455 458 
rene thvoigheadipn newer asic: he oricg ie vers 301 298 303iiae aS 09m mee293) 311 SN 1 | SHG 
La iygiin @ Seb iaadacatnaumoemeouonece secHee bon 79 84 83 73 76 79 87) 80 
MYaAMeEteniol Cyercusevacomurs sy a eseMm omenieae 96 96 85 112 93 101 100 113 
Least preorbital width.......................- 20 24 29 29 24 fo 8 31 31 
Weng tiMomup perry awena-ce ce ascrieneu neces 99 113 114 116 117 122 112 120 
Postorbitalapantiotmhead ssn. seen ceeeiee 129 120 126 | 119 abet 127 136 137 
EO OM AW Ve pe eongeensob abe paneee hada 86 84 99 | 108 | 91 105 90 101 
Least depth of caudal peduncle............... 129 122 131 138 | 143 | aR 130 142 
Deng thiofipectoral fins. . 2. sse seen: 242 249 266 270 | 269 | 249 251 265 
Length of pelvie fin..................... 268 240 267 251 | 256 | 281 230 251 
Length of third to sixth dorsal spine......... 162 140 150 | 182 154 135 149 147 
Length of upper caudal rays.................. 331 — 341 | - 360 -- 298 362 
Length of lower caudal rays.................. 331 — 310 338 321 324 103 386 
Length of caudal peduncle.....+.............. 145 160 170 170 182 183 221 222 


110 


To the recognized Chromis caeruleus (Cuvier 
and Valenciennes) we refer the following named 
species: Heliases caeruleus Cuvier and Valen- 
ciennes, Histoire naturelle des poissons 5: 497. 
1830 (New Guinea; Ulea); H. frenatus, ibid.: 
498 (Guam); H. lepisurus, ibid.: 498 (New 
Guinea). Heliases frenatus, Sauvage, Histoire 
naturelle des poissons 16: 486, pt. 28, fig. 1. 1887 
(Madagasear); Chromis lepisurus Bleeker, Atlas 
Ichthy. 9: pl. 408, fig. 7. 1877, and Nat. Verh. 
Holland. Maatsch. Wet. 2 (6): 164. 1877 (Hast 
Indies; Zanzibar; Andamans; Guam; Ulea). Heli- 
astes lepidurus Giinther, Catalogue of the fishes 
in the British Museum 4: p. 63, 1862 (Amboina; 
emended spelling for H. lepisurus Cuvier and 
Valenciennes); Day, Fishes of India 2: 389, pl. 
82, fig. 1. 1877 (Andamans); Giinther, Fische der 
Siidsee, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy 15 (pt. 7): 238 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 3 
(in part), pl. 128, fig. D (only). 1881. Glyphiodon 
anabatoides Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1870: 
696. Glyphisodon bandanensis Bleeker, Nat. 
Tijdschr. Ned. Indie 2: 248. 1851 (Neira, Banda). 
Chromis caeruleus (in part), Jordan and Seale, 
Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 25 (1905): 290. 1906 (Sa- 
moan Islands; in a letter to Dr. Jordan, see p. 
291, from Dr. Vaillant who examined the types 
of caeruleus, frenatus and lepisurus, all three are 
referred to a single species by him); Aoyagi, H., 
Biogeographica, Trans. Biogeog. Soc. Japan 4 (1): 
186, fig. 14. 1941 (Japan). 

Remarks.—Fowler and Bean, U.S. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 100, 7: 31, 61. 1928, have proposed the sub- 
genus Hoplochromis for C. caeruleus, characterized 
by having the ‘front edge of lower jaw with 6 
short conic teeth flaring outward.” 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new genus and species of anacanthobatid skate from the Gulf 
of Mexico. Henry B. BranLow and WILLIAM C. SCHROEDER.* (Communicated 


by L. P. Schultz.) 


In 1924 von Bonde and Swart! proposed 
a new genus Anacanthobatis for Leiobatis 
marmoratus von Bonde and Swart, a curi- 
ous batoid from the Natal coast; skatelike 
in that its pelvic fins are so deeply concave 
outwardly that they are entirely subdivided 
with the anterior subdivision limblike, but 
differing from all typical skates in their 
perfectly naked skins and in lacking dorsal 
fins. A second new species, dubia, agreeing 
with marmoratus in naked skin and in fila- 
mentous prolongation of the snout, but dif- 
fering from it in that the outer margins of 
the posterior subdivision of its pelvic fins 
are fused along their anterior one-half with 
the inner margins of the pectorals, was also 
referred to Anacanthobatis by von Bonde 
and Swart.? But the unique specimen seems 
to have lost most of its tail, so that the 
presence or absence of dorsal fins remains 
to be learned. 

Anacanthobatis is included among the 
Dasyatidae by Barnard,’ by Fowler,! and 

* Contribution no. 554 from the Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution. 

‘Mar. Biol. Surv. South Africa Rep. 3, spec. 
Rep. 5 [1922]: 18, pl. 23, and accompanying errata 
slip. 1924. 

FILO, Chiiss j9s 19). 


’ Ann. South African Mus. 21: 79. 1925. 
4U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, 13: 448. 1941. 


by Smith.’ But the nature of its pelvic fins 
seems to us to place it among the rajoids, 
as a separate family, Anacanthobatidae, be- 
cause of its naked skin and lack of dorsal 
fins. 

No batoid resembling Anacanthobatis was 
seen again until the autumn of 1950, when 
trawlings by the U. S. Fish and Wild Life 
Service vessel Oregon in the northern side 
of the Gulf of Mexico, off the Mississippi, 
yielded two specimens that agree with the 
South African A. marmoratus von Bonde 
and Swart in structure of pelvics, wholly 
naked skin, and long slender tail without 
dorsal fins, but with A. dubia von Bonde 
and Swart in the fact that the outer margins 
of the posterior subdivision of the pelvic 
fin is fused along the anterior two-thirds 
with the inner margin of the pectorals, which 
is not the case in marmoratus. But the Gulf 
of Mexico form differs from both marmora- 
tus‘and dubius in that the end of the snout 
is expanded in leaflike form (Fig. 1). 

The marginal fusion of pelvic fins with 
pectorals now established for two species is 
so unusual a character as to justify a new 
genus, for which we propose the name 
Springeria, in recognition of Stewart Spring- 


° Sea fishes of southern Africa: 71. 1949. 


Marcu 1951 BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: 
er’s productive studies of the elasmobranchs 
oi Florida and the Gulf. And the curious 
shape of the snout equally necessitates a 
new species, which we name /folirostris for 
obvious reasons. 


Springeria, n. gen. 


Genotype.—Springeria folirostris, n. sp. 
prolonged as 


Generic characters.—Snout either 


ANACANTHOBATID SKATE 111 
a simple filament, or expanded terminally in 
shape shown in Fig. 1, terminating in a soft 
filament; firm rostral cartilage extending to base 
of filament; outer margins of posterior lobes of 
pelviecs united along first two-thirds of their 
length with inner margins of pectorals; inner 
margins of posterior pelvic lobes attached nearly 
to tips to sides of tail. Tail without lateral folds, 
its lower side as well as its upper side with 
caudal membrane. Pelvic transverse, its anterior 


Fic. 1.—Springeria folirostris, n.sp., male, 400 mm long, holotwpe(U. S. N. M. no. 152546); 


\, End 


of tail, about X1.8; B, mouth and nasal curtain, about X1.8; C, three rows of teeth, upper, about X10. 


112 


profile slightly concave rearward, a long slender 
process at either end, directed forward, no radial 
cartilages along anterior half of basipterygial 
cartilages of pelvic fins. 

Species—Two species known, 8S. folvrostris, 
n. sp., from the Gulf of Mexico, and probably 
also dubia von Bonde and Swart, 1924, South 
Africa. 

Springeria folirostris, n. sp. 

Study material—Immature male, 400 mm 
long to base of terminal filament; northern Gulf 
of Mexico off the Mississippi River, lat. 29° 02’ N., 
long. 88° 34’ W.; 232-258 fathoms; holotype,U. 8. 
N. M. no. 152546; and very young male, 125 
mm long, same general locality, lat. 29° O01’ N., 
long. 88° 30’ W., paratype, Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology. 

Distinctive characters —Springeria  folirostris 
differs from all other known batoids in the 
peculiar leaflike expansion of the end of its 
snout. Specimens with this and the tail damaged 
would still be easily separable from all other 
rajoids of the Atlantic by their perfectly naked 
skins; from all dasyatid and myliobatid rays by 
the nature of their pelvic fins. 

Description of type (proportional dimensions 
in percent of total length).—Disc: Extreme 
breadth 51.6; length 55.3. Length of snout in 
front of orbits 21.8; in front of mouth 24.3. 
Orbits: Horizontal diameter 2.9; distance be- 
tween 2.6. Spiracles: Length 1.0; distance be- 
tween 5.1. Mouth: Breadth 4.5. Nostrils: Dis- 
tance between mner ends 5.8. Gill openings: 
Lengths, first 0.75, third 0.75, fifth 0.50; distance 
between inner ends, first 9.2, fifth 4.8. Caudal 
fin: Length, base, upper 6.0, lower 5.0. Pelvies: 
Anterior margin 12.7. Distance from tip of snout® 
to center of cloaca 47.6; from center of cloaca 
to tip of tail 52.4. 

Dise from base of terminal filament about 1.1 
times as long as broad; maximum anterior angle 
from level of base of terminal expansion of snout 
to level of spiracles about 85°; end of snout ex- 
panded in leaflike form as shown in Fig. 1, 
terminating in a slender filament about as long 
as distance between spiracles. Margins of dise 
rearward from terminal expansion weakly con- 
cave about to level of spiracles, then altering 
to continuously and strongly convex around to 
very short inner margins without definite outer 


6 Exelusive of rostral filament, which is 23 
mm long. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


or posterior corners. Tail very slender, laterally 
compressed, increasingly so rearward; its width 
at axils of pelvic fins (where thickest) about as 
great as length of eye; its length from center of 
cloaca to tip about 1.1 times as great as distance 
from cloaca to base of terminal filament of 
snout. Skin perfectly naked everywhere, without 
dermal denticles of any sort. Snout in front of 
eyes about 8.4 times as long to base of terminal 
filament as distance between orbits, its length 
in front of mouth about 6.5 times as great as 
distance between exposed nostrils. Orbit about 
1.1 times as long as distance between orbits, 
and nearly 3 (2.9) times as long as spiracle 
which is noticeably small. Nasal curtain con- 
spicuously fringed, each side with 10-11 lobelets; 
outer margin of nostril only slightly expanded 
with irregular edge. Exposed nostril noticeably 
minute. Mouth on immature males a little arched 
forward, probably also on females, its shape not 
known for mature males. Teeth 33 on young male, 
low, with obscure cutting edge but no cusp, 
and arranged in quincunx. Teeth of mature 
males not seen. Gill openings minute; first about 
one-sixth as long as breadth of mouth; fifth 
about two-thirds as long as first; distance be- 
tween inner ends of first gills about 1.6 times as 
long as between exposed nostrils, and between 
fifth gills about 1.9 times. No dorsal fins. Base of 
upper caudal fin-membrane about 1.0 times as 
long as distance between exposed nostrils, of 
shape illustrated (Fig. 1), its maximum width 
about one-tenth (about 9 percent) as great as 
length of its base; lower caudal membrane about 
half (55 percent) as wide as upper, its origin a 
little posterior to origin of upper; the two lobes 
discontinuous at tip of tail. Anterior leglike 
subdivision of pelvics nearly as long (95 percent) 
as from pelvic origin to rear corners, broader 
than thick, fleshy, with one articulation about 
midway its length, inner edge of the terminal 
segment scalloped, corresponding to tips of the 
three radial cartilages. Posterior lobe of pelvics 
with narrowly rounded rear corner reaching rear- 
ward only about as far as rear limits of disc; 
outer margin joined for about two-thirds its 
length to margin of pectoral, inner edge joined 
nearly to tip to side of tail. 

Anterior rays of pectorals extending forward 
to a little posterior to base of terminal expansion 
of snout; firm rostral cartilage reaching about 
to base of terminal filament. 


Marcu 1951 


Color: Ash gray above, except unpigmented 
and translucent in spaces between rostral ridge 
and anterior rays of pectorals; orbits dusky, 
terminal expansion of snout narrowly and ir- 
regularly margined with black, also the posterior 
part of the back with a sooty blotch on one side 
near midline, perhaps the result of injury. Lower 
surface pale grayish white, the outer posterior 
belt of pectorals sooty gray, terminal expansion 
of snout narrowly and irregularly edged with 
black; tail sooty at base. 

Development stages—Presumably Springeria is 
oviparous like other rajids, but its eggs have not 
been seen yet. 

Size.-—How large this skate may grow is not 


PITELKA: RACE NAMES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN JAY 


113 


known, for the larger of the two specimens seen 
so far, 400 mm long to base of terminal filament, 
is an immature male, its claspers not yet reach- 
ing as far as the tips of its pelvies. 

Habits—The two specimens seen so far were 
trawled at 232-258 fathoms, this with the im- 
probability that this skate would have been 
overlooked if it occurred in shallow water, sug- 
gests that it is confined to depths greater than 
about 200 fathoms. Nothing else is known of its 
habits. 

Range.—So far known only in the northern 
side of the Gulf of Mexico off the Mississippi 
River, at the localities listed on page 112 under 
Study material. 


ORNITHOLOGY .—Race names in the Central American jay, Cyanolyea argenti- 
eula. FRANK A. PrrELKa, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of Cali- 
fornia. (Communicated by H. G. Deignan.) 


The silver-throated jay, Cyanolyca argen- 
tigula, is a species of restricted distribution 
in montane forests of Central America, and 
at present two rather well marked races are 
recognized, C. u. argentigula (Lawrence) in 
central Costa Rica and C. a. blandita Bangs 
in northern Panama. When Bangs (Proc. 
Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 109. 1906) de- 
scribed the latter from the Volc4n de 
Chiriqui, he evidently did not see Lavrence’s 
type of argentigula and assumed from Law- 
rence’s description (Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. 
New York 11: 88. 1875) that the latter re- 
ferred to specimens with white throats rather 
than to those with violet-gray throats. Speci- 
mens of the white-throated form, represent- 
ing argentigula as now known, were then and 
are now more numerous in collections than 
specimens of the gray-throated form, blan- 
dita. Reading of Lawrence’s description in 
the light of current knowledge of the two 
races will reveal that the original descrip- 
tion, rather vague as regards critical details, 
suggests argentigula more than it does blan- 
dita. Ridgway’s description (Birds of North 
and Middle America, pt. 3: 319. 1904), based 
on specimens from both northern Panama 
and central Costa Rica, applies to and in- 
cludes both races as now recognized. From 
these considerations Bangs, in 1906, evi- 
dently deseribed blandita on the assumption 
that Lawrence’s name applied to the best- 


known population, that of central Costa 
Rica. The type of argentigula, however, 
which I examined in Washington, D. C., in 
December 1949, so closely resembles the 
type of blandita, examined in Cambridge 
two months earlier, that both evidently rep- 
resent one and the same race. 

Interestingly enough, the basic facts con- 
cerning the type of argentigula were pub- 
lished in 1889 by Ridgway (Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. 11: 541), when he compared it with 
specimens from the Volcan Irazti and stated: 
“Compared with the type [four adults] all 
have the throat-patch decidedly paler, its 
color being silvery white with a very faint 
purplish tinge, instead of light silvery grey, 
with a very strong tinge of purplish blue.” 
Differences in the crown-band are also fully 
and correctly described by Ridgway. These 
are the differences used by Bangs to dis- 
tinguish blandita. 

There is ample evidence to support that 
provided by the types themselves. In the 
specimen register of the United States Na- 
tional Museum, the information on the type 
of argentigula, no. 67963, is as follows: Orig- 
inal number 320, female {inverted Venus’s 
mirror sign on original label indicates female, 
as collector used usual sign for male|, Ta- 
lamanca, Costa Riea, received from William 
M. Gabb. In a subsequent entry, C. W. 
Richmond added the details that the speci- 


114 


men was collected by Juan Cooper, in May 
or June 1874. In Cooper’s original catalogue, 
field numbers 315-320 are listed under the 
locality heading “En Camo,” a phrase of 
unclear meaning (see beyond). Immediately 
following 320, however, is the locality head- 
ing “Cipurio” [=Sipurio]. Cooper’s cata- 
logue carries no dates, but the listing is 
chronological. 

It seems clear that the type was obtained 
near Sipurio in southeastern Costa Rica, 
near the Panama border, and on the Carib- 
bean slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca. 
From present-day knowledge of the altitu- 
dinal distribution of C. argentigula, we can 
say that the type was collected well above 
that lowland town. From a brief account 
published by Gabb in 1874 (Amer. Journ. 
Sei. 108: 388-390), it is known that in the 
course of a four months’ journey into Ta- 
lamanea, he reached the summit of Pico 
Blanco, a major peak above and south of 
Sipurio, on June 13 of that year. In another 
account, also written in 1874 (see pp. 267— 
286, Geografia de Costa Rica, by F. Mon- 
tero Barrantes, Barcelona, 1892), Gabb out- 
lines the route of his ascent between the 
rios Urén and Lari, thence across the latter 
and upward to the summit. The descent was 
apparently made between the rios Lari and 
Depari, or at least to the northwest of the 
ascent. 

Gabb was accompanied in Talamanca by 
Juan Cooper, and from Cooper’s catalogue 
and probably other clues, Richmond de- 
duced that the specimens listed under the 
heading “‘En Camo” were obtained in May 
or June 1874. “En Camo” probably means 
“en camino.” The former is the only local- 
ity heading used by Cooper other than ‘‘Ci- 
purio,’ which precedes and follows “En 
Camo.” 

Tt thus seems very likely that Lawrence’s 
type was collected near and more or less 
north of Pico Blanco, above Sipurio and 
probably in the drainage of the Rio Lari. 
This may be considered the restricted type 
locality of Cyanocitta argentigula Lawrence. 
The geographic details are given on a map 

1 Gabb was a paleontologist, and I do not know 
of any evidence clearly indicating that some of the 
specimens credited to him (for example, by Good- 


win, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 87: 455. 1945) 
were collected by him personally. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


accompanying Carriker’s report on Costa 
Rican birds (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 6: 314— 
915. 1910), on which trails leading above 
Sipurio are indicated. 

According to Goodwin (Bull. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist. 87: 279. 1945), the major faunal 
break in the highland faunas of Costa Rica 
appears to follow the valley of the Rio 
Reventazon, which, with the Rio Grande 
de Tarcoles, separates the Cordillera Cen- 
tral Gncluding Volean Irazi and Volean Tur- 
rialba) from the Cordillera de Talamanca. 
Faunal affinities of the latter range are to 
the south with Panama, at least among 
mammals (Goodwin, loc. cit.). 

We now have these facts: The type of 
argentigula shares with blandita the pale vio- 
let-gray throat and crown-band coloration 
which Bangs used to distinguish the latter 
race from the former. Cooper obtained the 
type of argentigula in montane highlands 
continuous with those inhabited by blandita 
but separated from mountains inhabited by 
the white-throated race to the north. Cy- 
anolyca blandita Bangs is thus a synonym 
of Cyanocitta argentigula Lawrence, and the 
name formerly applied to the northern race 
unfortunately must now be anplied to the 
southern race, including, as it has not here- 
tofore, the population of southern Costa 
Rica. The northern race, left without a name, 
may be known as— 


Cyanolyca argentigula albior, n. name 


Type.—Adult male, U. 8S. N. M. no. 209407, 
Voledn Turrialba, 9,680 feet, Costa Rica, March 
28, 1908, collected by R. Ridgway and J. C. 
Zeledén, original number 582. \easurements of 
the type: Wing (chord), 118 mm; tail, 126; bill 
length (from nostril), 17.6; bill depth (at nostril), 
10.1; tarsus, 35.3. 

Racial characters—Compared with C. a. argen- 
tigula of northern Panama and southern Costa 
Rica, throat lighter and less purplish (silvery 
white); transverse band on crown also lighter 
(silvery white), tinged marginally with pale lay- 
ender, but less brightly; supraauricular stripe 
lighter; wings and tail less purplish (Nigrosin 
Blue); size probably smaller (see table 1). 

Geographic distribution —Cordillera Central of 
Costa Rica [Voledn Irazu, Voledin Turrialba, 
La Hondura, Puente de Tierra, Retes, San Isidro 
de San José, and San Pedro (de Péas?)]. 


Marcu 1951 PROCEEDINGS: THE 

So far as I can determine now, other than 
Lawrence’s type, none of the specimens of a total 
of 87 examined by me comes from the mountains 
of southern Costa Rica, south of the rios Pirrfs 
and Reventazén. Six specimens bearing the lo- 
eality “Limon,” a Caribbean seaport, were not 
obtained there but elsewhere and possibly in 
the province of Limén, which includes the Tala- 
manea district and the Caribbean slopes of the 
Talamanca Range. But the specimens from “Li- 
mon” resemble those from the Cordillera Central 
and are assigned to C. a. albior. Nevertheless, 
the possibility remains that intergradation of 
characters occurs at the north end of the Cor- 
dillera de Talamanca. 

Acknowledgement is gratefully made to H. G. 
Deignan, United States National Museum, for 


ACADEMY 115 
critical assistance in the preparation of this paper. 
Helpful suggestions were also received from J. L. 
Peters, Museum of Comparative Zoology. Speci- 
mens from the following collections were ex- 
amined: American Museum of Natural History, 
British Museum, Carnegie Museum, Chicago 
Natural History Museum, H. O. Havemeyer, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Royal On- 
tario Museum of Zoology, United States National 
Museum, University of California (Dickey col- 
lection), and University of Michigan (Museum of 
Zoology). I am indebted to the curators and 
owners of these collections for their kind co- 
operation. This paper results from researches 
supported by a John Simon Guggenehim Fellow- 
ship held im 1949-50. 


TaBLE 1—MEASUREMENTS OF ADULTS OF CYANOLYCA ARGENTIGULA 


i} Y o ~ 
Race | Sex pees | Range See Ne eee 
| 
C. a. albior | 
; Maleseeee eee 31 112-123 118.2 + 0.5 3.0 
NUBD se. osseaze apnea onal 15 111-120 115.4 + 0.8 3 
emales 5 =: 0: 3.0 
: Males........... 30 118-134 124.5 + 0.8 £1 
UGH occ vos oo ssancon ede Females........ 14 116-126 121.4 + 1.0 3.7 
ere Malesea)s- ee: 31 16.2-18.6 17.42 + 0.10 0.57 
Pea peH aaa e eae Females........ 15 15.8-18.7 16.80 + 0.25 0.95 
i VMalesseeee eee 31 §.8-10.1 9.31 + 0.07 0.38 
Bill depth... Females........ 14 8.3- 8.9 9.14 40.11 0.42 
Tes Males........... 32 32.7-35.7 34.15 + 0.13 0.76 
e Temales........ 15 32.0-34.5 33.24 + 0.18 0.70 
C_ a. argentigula 

ee Males........... 6 119-127 121.8 + 1.2 2.9 
WEIN. coy oom se sion ozeenas Females....... 4 116-125 119.7 3.6 
rae Males... 6 122-141 129.5 + 2.7 6.5 
TS ee Females...... 4 125-132 128.5 3.5 
Bill, length Males ........ 6 17.1-18.6 17.80 + 0.26 0.63 
: Females........ 4 16.4-18.1 17.95 0.83 
E Males 5 9.6-10.6 9.85 + 0.17 0.39 
JED, COUN oes lnlternalesy 20. A 9.0-10.2 9.70 0.55 
ai Males......-... 6 33.8-37.3 35.35 + 0.62 1.52 

apy Iemales ... 4 32.1-35.2 33.95 nee 


1 In samples of less than 30 specimens, N-1 was used in calculation of standard deviation. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


443d MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 443d meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on January 16, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:07 p.m. by the President, 
F. B. Sirspen. Also present were: N. R. Surrx, 
H. S. Rappieye, J. A. Srevenson, H. A. 
Reyprer, A. T. McPurrson, W. R. WEDEL, 
J. S. Wititams, F. O. Con, F. A. Weiss, W. A. 
Dayton, C. A. Berrs, R. S. Dinu, E. W. Price, 
Marearer Pirrwan, H. W. Henrie, F. M. 
SETZLER, and, by invitation, R. G. Bares, T. D. 


Stewart, M. A. Mason, Waurer RaAMBeEerG, 
and B. D. Van Evera. 

The Committee on Membership submitted the 
names of four individuals proposed for resident 
membership. Seventeen persons previously pro- 
posed were elected, 14 to resident and 3 to non- 
resident membership. 

The President announced that all 
ments had been completed for the Annual Meet- 
ing to be held at the Kennedy-Warren on Janu- 
ary 18, 1951, at which time Dr. Per IK. Frouicu 
would address the Academy. 


arrange- 


116 


The General Chairman of the Committee on 
Awards for Scientific Achievement, T. Dat 
Srewarr, called upon WALTER RaMBERG, Chair- 
man of the Engineering Sciences, to read the re- 
port of his Committee recommending SAMUEL 
Levy, National Bureau of Standards, for the 
annual award in recognition of his distinguished 
service in the structural analysis of aircraft. Dr. 
Stewart then read the report by the Comittee on 
Physical Sciences, which recommended Puxitip 
H. Asetson, Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism, in recognition of his distinguished service 
in the fields of chemistry, nuclear physics, and the 
physies of living organisms. Dr. Stewart read the 
report of the Committee on Biological Sciences, 
which recommended Davin H. Dunxup, U. 8. 
National Museum, for recognition of his dis- 
tinguished service in paleontology, especially by 
researches on early arthrodiran and teleost fishes. 

The Board of Managers unanimously accepted 
and approved the recommendations of the Com- 
mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement. 

B. D. Van Evera, Chairman of the Com- 
mittee for the Teaching of Science, indicated 
that his Committee had decided that no award 
be made this year. Considerable discussion fol- 
lowed with regard to the difficulties in connection 
with the age limit as set by the rules of the Board 
and the advisability of increasing the number of 
recipients for these awards. 

The Chairman of the Committee on the En- 
couragement of Science Talent, M. A. Mason, 
read a report summarizing the work of the Com- 
mittee during the past year. Report will be pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Annual Meeting. 

The Special Committee on Joint Secretariat, 
consisting of Harvey L. Curtis, chairman, H. 8. 
RappLEYE, and NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, submitted 
the following report: 


The following is a report to the Board of Man- 
agers of the Washington Academy of Sciences of a 
special committee appointed in March 1950 to ex- 
amine the desirability of establishing a central 
secretarial office to be used jointly by the various 
scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. 
This committee [has] sent a circular letter to all 
the afhliated societies on May 25, 1950, and a fol- 
low-up letter on November 20. Replies have been 
received from all but three of the societies. Six 
societies stated categorically that they were not 
interested. Eight societies have sent rather evasive 
replies. Not one of them indicated anything more 
than lukewarm interest in the matter. One society 
suggests that the Academy handle the meeting 
notices of all societies by means of a monthly pub- 
lication. Another society indicates that the Engi- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


neers’ Club has a project similar to that suggested 
by the Academy and that they are awaiting more 
complete information from that group before giv- 
ing a definite reply. 

As a result of the information summarized 
above, this committee does not feel that the Acad- 
emy would be justified at the present time in es- 
tablishing a central secretarial office for the 
scientific societies of Washington. 

In discussions concerning the central secre- 
tariat the question arose concerning the desir- 
ability of having an executive secretary to handle 
many of the affairs of the Academy now entrusted 
to the elected secretary and treasurer of the Acad- 
emy. It may be possible to have office space in the 
new building of the Cosmos Club and to have a 
retired member of the Academy serve as executive 
secretary on a part time basis. This question, how- 
ever, is considered outside the field of this special 
committee and no recommendations concerning 
it are intended. A summary of the activities of the 
committee is attached hereto. 


The Board expressed their gratitude for the 
work of the committee in completing its assign- 
ment. 

The following members, having retired from 
the gainful practice of their professions, were 
placed on the retired list: Atice C. Evans, 
Luoyp D. Friron, Maurice J. Smirx, JosepH 
S. WaprE. 

The Secretary reported the following deaths: 

Epwarp A. Briree, University of Wisconsin, 
Madison, Wis., on June 9, 1950 (elected May 15, 
1906); CHEsTER Srock, California Institute of 
Technology, Pasadena, Calif., on December 6, 
1950. (elected February 6, 1942); JoHn F. En- 
BREE, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., on 
December 22, 1950 (elected June 28, 1943); H. 
EK. Ewinc, formerly of the U. S. Bureau of 
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, on January 
5, 1951 (elected May 15, 1934). 

The Secretary read a report by W. N. Fenton, 
Chairman of the Committee on the 40-Year 
Index of the JouRNAL, indicating that the index 
had now been completed and the cards are 
marked for the printer. 

The Treasurer, Howarp 8. RappLeyE, out- 
lined the financial transactions for the year and 
submitted the report of the Auditing Committee. 
Details of this report will be printed as part of 
the Proceedings of the Annual Meeting. 

The President expressed his thanks to the 
Board and to the various committees for their 
active cooperation during the year. 

The meeting was then adjourned at 9:30 p.m. 
to partake of some refreshments offered by the 
outgoing President. 

F. M. Serziumr, Secretary. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


IP ROSCCICTI Be tae eee ose Cee cnet ae te ate eee Natuan R. Smitru, Plant Industry Station 
PARESTOENE CLE CEs See ts cron ea? Water RamBerc, N ational Bureau of Standards 
SCORAGD Us Saee ole ad eee SO ee F. M. DEFANDORF, National Bureau of Standards 
LSAT SOURGRS Goan aaCe eI Howarp 8S. Rappi5ys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
LEE COTOSE ho 6 okt Senta oes renee ee eee eae Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Rexper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brologicallsocietyzof Washineton..5...0..5.+.4.004-5.--4s450eeees ee 

ChemicalisocietyofWashinetonyys sss ane es ee vee ne Josep J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ Frepmrick W. Poos 
NatronsliGeographie Society: 4.002520. c-eceeses ones. ALEXANDER WETMORE 
GeoloricallSocietyzoh Washineton...ee) 0. 05s) see enone Lreason H. ApAms 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 

ColumbraviistoricaliSocietya-- 2) 4chs5 sco ses ooo eos eee GILBERT GROSVENOR 
oumicalysocietyaon Washington. 475940) 4see0h le onesee sete e- EK. H. WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuuiam A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers............................- Currrorp A. Betts 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DreraNnDORF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. Dinu 


Helminthological Society OH! WAINIORIOIN, son voncdecesancoooebancs L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. Grirrin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers....H=nry W. HempiE 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Hersert G. Dorsny 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.... 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


ANG) IBTAUTTEN NGPA ie ee een er ea ne W. F. Fosuaa, C. L. Gazin 
MRopdamWarye G03, 08 cee cess ced aes so oe C. F. W. Mursesecn*, A. T. McPHERSON 
To Jammer eYe Seige sae eo aeee een ae eee Sara E. Branuam, Mitron Harris* 
IB OURORO/MUIONOGENS sole tess ca kes san All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BoojisojmuditorsvandsAlssocvate, Havtonsn. 9-2-4 4eeese ea - aah eee [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. SmitrH (chairman), WatrprR RampBere, H. 8. RappLeye, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. Drranporr 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SprnpLER (chairman), M. S. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. E. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Smiru, Heinz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MarGaret Pittman (chairman), NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. Cuaruine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scuenrz, H. W. Weis 

Committee on Monographs: 


To January 1952.....................J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Pau H. OEHSER 
Momsen yp G 3h ey, ycmed vate eek cts asap homos at thelse Sold se naweness R. W. Iunay, P. W. OMAN 
AN@ diaiameniyy JOEL ca cee ae ae eee eae ern esa eee EIR eee 8. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracek 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEoRee P. Watton, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FaBeEr, JR., 
Myrna F. Joness, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwALLEN 
For the Engineering Sciences......... IR, (So IDE, (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 
J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 
For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Wauron (chairman), F. a BRACKETT, 
G. E. Hoi, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMriien 
For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. Barnes, 
F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPuerson 
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research...................... L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suniivan, H. L. WairremorEe 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


PRomamm arya O52 eestor sare ces sie aloes ede J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

ING Lieemineieye MOVERS, Beis saree eee a eke eine ORR ER etce eae ae W. A. Dayton, N. R. Sarre 

Bop yemmmamyalO OA, cic elise ccna sls clare bose ee salads H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Ruspny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Ie denamenyy IQGH. -sccceccoobneoooode M. A. Mason ane A. T. McPHERSON 

PRO amr arayael 9 Dotan ees eeey Aaeratsiasbouc) sraianae oretans echoes ANG CLARK, F. L. Mower 

omanuanyel 954% n rane tian saree esi tins saeciees Jo Wile Gasca W. L. Scamirr 
Ikxgrorasgaaioe Op Counc OF As Als Alc Soanncocconunaccsdsdgccuecusonren F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaren, W. J. YouDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Lovisr M. Russeuu 


* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 
ArcHEOLOGY.—Additional data on the Denbigh Flint Complex in north- 
ern Alaska. RatpHS.Sotecki and RopertJ. HACKMAN.......... 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Duinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious stinging ant. H. 
Ay ADUARD 94 co. Oh5 84 tea diere 6 ala kee oe ee 


Zootocy.—A revision of the nomenclature of the Gorgoniidae (Coe- 
lenterata: Octocorallia), with an illustrated key to the genera. 
FREDERICK Mi. sBAYER. 00... 5.2. 0c 0) one) 


MatacoLtocy.—Recent species of the veneroid pelecypod Arctica. Davin 


IcutHyoLtoey.—Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish from the tropical 
Pacific, closely related to C. caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. Ar- 
THUR D. WELANDER and LeoNnARD P. SCHULTZ.................- 


IcHTHYOLOGy.—A new genus and species of anacanthobatid skate from 
the Gulf of Mexico. Henry B. BigeLow and WiuuiaM C. ScHROE- 


OrNITHOLOGY.—Race names in the Central American jay, Cyanolyca ar- 
gentigula.. BRANK AL PITeLKA.. 0.0.2 ...-.4... 905 oe 


PROCEEDINGS: Tam ACADEMY... 60 odes cae. esc) eee 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


85 


88 


91 


102 


107 


110 


a 
Kf) 
mePAF UP, |} 
P2w2eD 
(~~ ¥ af 
Vot. 41 Aprit 1951 No. 4 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


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ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY | T. P. THAYER 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41 


April 1951 


No. 4 


MATHEMATICS.—The theory of group representations.! Francis E. JOHNSTON, 


George Washington University. 


The modern theory of groups began with 
what are called permutation groups in the 
attempts of Lagrange, Ruffini, Vander- 
monde, and Galois to solve the general alge- 
braic equation of degree greater than 4. To- 
day we usually define a group abstractly by 
a set of postulates. Suppose we have a finite 
or infinite set of distinct elements s, t, u, --- 
and a rule of combination of these elements 
such that two of them may combine to pro- 
duce a unique element of the set, or such 
that an element may combine with itself to 
produce a unique element of the set. We 
shall call this process of combining ‘‘multi- 
plication” and shall write the two combining 
elements in juxtaposition as is done in ordi- 
nary algebraic multiplication; the result of 
their combination we shall call their “‘prod- 
uct”’. We assume the following four postu- 
lates satisfied (the first of which has already 
been included in the above description) : 


1. The product ts is a unique element wu of the 
set u = ts. 

2. The associative law holds: w(ts) = (ut)s. 

3. There exists in the set an element e such 
se = s for all s of the set. (e is the right identity.) 

4. To every element s of the set there corre- 
sponds an elements denoted by s! such that 
ss! = e. (s_1 is the right inverse of s with regard 
to e.) 


Such a set of elements is said to constitute 
a group. It can be shown that the assumed 
right identity is unique and that it is also a 
unique left identity. It can be shown also 
that the right inverse of an element is unique 
and is also a unique left inverse for that ele- 
ment, so that we have se = es = s and 
sts=sslt=e. 


If it happens that st = ts the group is 


1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington, January 14, 1950. 


said to be abelian. We may define the inte- 
gral powers of an element: s? = s-s, and by 
induction s” = s-s”1. Also s-” = (s—!)” and 
s°? = e. All the elementary algebraic laws of 
exponents immediately follow. 

If the number of elements in the group is 
finite the group is a finite group, otherwise 
infinite. For a finite group the number of 
elements is the order of the group. Evidently 
the powers of a single element constitute a 
group, called a cyclic group. If this group is 
finite, that is, if s* = e and s” ¥ e, where m 
is less than n, then n is said to be the order 
of the element s. A cyclic group of infinite 
order is said to be a free group. 

Elementary examples of groups are nu- 
merous. If the rule of combination is ordi- 
nary arithmetic multiplication, then the set 
of all positive rational numbers is a group, 
in which one is the identity and the inverse 


of eZ is 1 Tf the rule of combination is ordi- 


nary algebraic multiplication then the four 
numbers 1, —1, 7, —7 (22 = —1) constitute 
a cyclic group of order 4, since the elements 
are the powers of 7. 

Sets of nonsingular square matrices con- 
stitute groups, the elements of the matrices 
being numbers of the complex number field 
and the rule of combination being ordinary 
matrix multiplication. That is, if 


11 A213 * + * Ain bi biz bis > ++ bin 

A ee 
Ani An2An3z*** Ann bri One bns* ++ Onn 
C11 Ci2 Cig ** * Cin 

c see and AB = C 
Cni Cn2 Cn3*** Cnn 


n c= 1] 2s 
then c;; = > Aix De; where 
k=1 J=1, 


117 


MAY 1 - 1951 


118 


The identity matrix for a group of matrices 
each with n rows is the matrix 


I 22 @ 
GQ) kaa @ 
(0) @ oo il 


and methods of computing the inverse of a 
nonsingular matrix are well known. The 
three groups below are simple examples of 
groups of matrices. The first set of six ma- 
trices constitutes a group of order six. Be- 
neath each matrix I have written a letter 
which may serve to designate the element, 
since the same group is used as an illustra- 
tion later. H is the identity element; A, B 
and C are of order two, while D and F are 
of order three. The second set of six matrices 
likewise constitute a group of order six, w 
representing a complex cube root of unity. 
The same letters as before may be associated 
with these elements for later identification, 
E again being the identity, A, B, and C of 
order 2, and D and F of order 3. The third 
set of matrices constitute a group of order 8. 


owe! 


E A 
(3 Or 3 1 
HVS 33 Jy NERS a As 
B ¢ 
( 4 Ny ( a) 
Vs 3/43 =4 J, 
D F 


( 
) j ae 


where w + w =0 
0 0 0 -1 
Gceete) 
i @ Oa 
we js =n). 


tO 0 
Q =i, Vil 
course arose from 


Matrices of “linear 
transformations” and the groups of matrices 
are really the groups of the linear trans- 
formations which give rise to these matrices. 
In a mathematical system involving certain 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


variables, 11, %2,-°-:, %,, 1t may be con- 
venient to replace these variables by new 
variables, x1, 2, --- x, through the me- 
dium of a linear transformation: 


y 
ah = (eet =p 00° SP Cigdin 
Dp = Oni) ea A 
/ 
Un = AniLy ap te a Ohodte 


A second linear transformation may replace 


A 
the a1, ,° > ta by once 
Nu / 
v1 = buar + 555 Se hint 
WY / / 
2 = Dota 4° - = ate Uondn B 


» &R 
o WS 


tn = Dati + --> + Danba 
By the ‘‘product”’ of two such linear trans- 
formations we mean simply their sequential 
performance and the result of first operating 
on the system by the transformation A and 
then by the transformation B will be the 
same as if we operated by the single trans- 
formation C, where C = BA, which replaces 
the vee variables Thewily Dy? aA 5 a 5 

. In practice, however, we generally 
use Ati the unaccented sarmatblles on the 
right in a given transformation and simple 
accented ones on the left, imagining the 
process to start anew each time. 

I said that group theory began with per- 
mutation groups in the attempt of mathe- 
maticians to solve algebraic equations of 
higher degree. If we have a set of letters or 
symbols which appear in a mathematical 
system, and each of them is replaced by a 
distinct one of the set then we effect a ‘‘per- 
mutation” on the letters. This process may 
be denoted by writing them in any con- 
venient order on one line (the “natural”’ 
order if they seem to possess one) and then 
writing below each letter the one by which 
it is replaced. Usually large parentheses are 
used to enclose the array. Thus if the sym- 
bols are the letters a, b, c, d, four such per- 
mutations are the following: 


aca) Gee) eee) eee) 
abecd/, beda/, cdab/, dabec}. 
The first of these represents the identity per- 
mutation wherein each letter remains un- 
changed; in the second permutation a is re- 
placed by b, b by c, c by d, and d by a; in 
the third a is replaced by c, b by d, c by a, 


EW 


al Society of Washington, 1949. 


1c 


Francis E. Jounston, President of the Philosoph 


“ 
ni 1 
+ 
j 
4 
7 - 
¥ 
r = 
. 
: Ae 
\ 1 


Aprint 1951 


and d by b; in the last a is replaced by d, 
b by a, c by b, and d by c. The product of 
two permutations is their sequential per- 
formance; thus the product of the second of 
the above permutations followed by the 
third is the last. It is not difficult to verify 
the fact that the above four permutations 
satisiy the requirements for a group and 
hence constitute a permutation group. 

Sometimes it is convenient to represent a 
permutation by a sequence of letters in which 
each letter is replaced by the letter to its 
right, the rightmost letter in the ‘‘cycle’’ be- 
ing replaced by the letter at the beginning 
of the cycle. If when the cycle is thus 
“closed”’ all letters have not been accounted 
for, a new cycle is begun, and so on until all 
letters have been taken care of. In this 
scheme, letters which are replaced by them- 
selves constitute cycles of a single letter and 
when there is no danger of confusion such 
cycles are frequently omitted. When a per- 
mutation is written in its simplest form as a 
product of cycles no two cycles will have a 
common letter, and hence they will be com- 
mutative and may be written in any order. 
Thus 

hee ) = abe-cd = bea-cd = bea-de = de-bea 
edca 
Indeed there are 12 ways to represent the 
above permutation in the manner under dis- 
cussion. 

Denote by a; the number of unary cycles, 
by a: the number of cycles with two letters 
each, by a3 the number of cycles with three 
letters each, etc. Then 


ai + 2a. + 8a3 + --- + na, =n 


Such a permutation is said to belong to the 
“class” (a1, @2,°°* , Qn). 

When a permutation on n letters is written 
in the 2-row form the letters of the top row 
may be written in an arbitrary order and 
those of the lower row may then be written 
in any one of n! orders; hence there are n/ 
permutations on n letters and the aggregate 
will constitute a group, the ‘‘symmetric”’ 
group on n letters. It is not difficult to see 
(as brought out in the next paragraph) that 
the number of classes of elements in the 
symmetric group equals the number of parti- 
tions of n with regard to addition into non- 
negative summands. This is a very old prob- 


JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


119 


lem in number theory and we tabulate the 
number of partitions for some values of n: 


Value of n Number of partitions of n 
1 1 
2 2 
3 3 
4 5 
5 7 
6 11 
7 15 
8 22 
9 30 
10 42 
16 231 
20 627 
200 3,972,999 ,029 388. 


For example, the partitions of 5 are 5, 4 + 1, 

Oa ae qe dl oe Il SS oy ele iho) ae a te 

1+1,1+1+1+ 1+ 1,a total of seven. 
If we write 


a2 +--+: + an =o 
An = An 
then 
Ait A2+ee? An = MM She SAS --- > dA [OO 
and 
CN, ey = Debden 
Qn—1 = An-1 — Any an = dp 


A partition of » will thus be in the form 
(Ar, A2, As, °°: , An). For example if n is 
10 we have the partition (3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 
OO; 0, O) SG, 4, 4 Uy lo) S&B. WO). 
We have omitted unnecessary zeros at the 
end and also have used exponents to avoid 
duplication. Here 


at =) 3h 2 — lh ant =62) 210 


aj =2—-—1=1, ay=1—-1=0 


az = as = ag = an = 0. 


Hence the above partition corresponds to a 
class of elements having the structure: one 
unary cycle, one ternary cycle, one cycle of 
six letters. For n = 3 and n = 4 we list the 
partitions, the number of elements in the 
corresponding class, and the actual permu- 
tations: 


120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 
x Number of List of 
Partition Class permutations permutations 
p= 3} (Ab, Ish) a, = 0 a= 0 a;= 1! 2 abc, acb 
(2, 1) a, = 1, a = 1 3 ab, ac, be 
(3) a, = 3 1 identity 
be a EX abcd, adcb, abdc, acdb 
n=4 (,1,1,1) ao =a.=a;=0, ay =] 6 Gebel: ae 
(@, 10) a, = 2, a = 1 6 oy ole, Corel, (oe, lol, al 
(22) a, = 0, ap = 2 3 ab-cd, ac-bd, ad-be 
. be acb abd adb 
2 = nS = 8 ave, ? 7 
eS Bilieg Te see) ieee acd, ade, = tocdMammbrie® 
(4) a, = 4 1 identity 


Without stopping to advance an argument 
we note that the number of permutations 
on n letters in the class (a, a2, a3, °°" 
is given by 


n! 
(1**- cx!) (27? -arq!)(3°* -axg!) - + - 


where as usual 0! = 1. This formula is veri- 
fiable in the simple cases above. 

A permutation group may be interpreted 
as a group of matrices. Thus, if we write the 
permutation in the 2-row form and accent 
the symbols in the lower row we have a 
transformation, which is given by its matrix. 
For example, on three letters the per- 


a X1 Xo X3 
OMOANIKOI || 7 7 
Lo X3 X1 

is essentially the transformation 


/ 
U1 


= x3 
r= % 
t= ee 
001 
with the matrix | 1 0 0 J. It will be observed 
010 


that matrices corresponding to permutations 
have in each row every element zero except 
one element, which has the value 1, and like- 
wise in each column they have every element 
zero except one element which has the 
value 1. 

If A, E (the identity element), A, , 
A3,:::, A, constitute a finite group of 
matrices and M is a matrix, then the set of 
matrices MA,M™, MA,M—4, MA3M—, - -- , 


MAgM“* likewise constitute a group; a group 
which is s¢mply isomorphic with the original 
group. This means that if A;A; = A; then 
(MA;M—™)(MA,M—) = MA,M~—. The sec- 
ond group is said to be conjugate with the 
first and is said to be obtained from it by 
transforming the first group by M. It may 
happen that the second group will be identi- 
cal with the first group, perhaps because the 
individual matrices of the group are un- 
changed when transformed by M, or because 
the set of matrices as a whole is identical 
except for order after it is transformed by /. 
When this is the case the group is said to be 
invariant under M. 

A matrix WM is obtained from the matrix M 
by replacing each of the elements by its 
conjugate number is the conjugate of M. In 
symbols 


M = (G,;) 


A matrix obtained from M by interchanging 
the roles of the rows and columns of M is 
called the transposed of M and is denoted 
by M’. That is, 
M’' = (ai;) ‘where aj; = aj; 
A matrix is said to be Hermitian if it equals 
the transposed of the conjugate of itself, 
that is H is a Hermitian matrix if 
Sie or the = Ox 

A matrix is said to be unitary if it equals the 
inverse of the transposed of the conjugate 
of itself, that is U is unitary if U = (U’)-. 
It follows at once that the necessary and 
sufficient condition that a matrix be unitary 
is that the relations hold: 


Aprit 1951 JOHNSTON: 
k=n 
Ss Ani Any = 85; 
k=1 
3 2 eee (4 if w=7 
ON eae wei Tey jen 
nl - 5, 1 "10 if oj 


This condition may also be expressed in the 
equivalent form 


k=n 
Do Ged = 81; 
kK 


A matrix is said to be orthogonal if it equals 
the inverse of the transposed of itself, that 
is 0 is orthogonal if 


0 = 0/7 


Evidently for a real matrix the terms orthog- 
onal and unitary mean the same thing. 

Suppose we have a group G consisting of 
the elements A,, A2,--- and to each ele- 
ment A; of G we make correspond a non- 
singular matrix D(A;) such that if D(A;) 
corresponds to A; and D(A;) corresponds to 
A; then D(A;A;) corresponds to A;A;. Then 
the set of matrices 1s said to be a representa- 
tion of G. We have not said that distinct 
matrices must correspond to distinct group 
elements; if that is the case the representa- 
tion is said to be a faithful representation 
and the matrices will themselves form a 
group, a group simply isomorphic with the 
given group. It is evident that we shall al- 
ways have a representation in which every 
group element corresponds to the identity 
matrix with one row, that is, every element 
corresponds to the matrix (1). Equally well 
we might make every element correspond to 
the identity matrix with two or three or 
more rows. 

Now it may happen that we can find a 
matrix M such that if we transform simul- 
taneously all the matrices of a representation 
by it they will all take the form 


DAD 0 cca (0) 
0 DPR) cos 


ONelwilvieretelicleleliellesi es) 


Tf this is true, the original representation is 
said to be reducible and it has the constit- 


THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


121 


uents D™(A,;), D®(A,;), --- . Each of these 
constituents (not necessarily assumed to be 
all distinct) is also a representation of the 
given group. If a constituent is such that it 
cannot be further reduced then it is said to 
be an irreducible representation; and we 
assume the transforming matrix so chosen 
that each D(A;) is irreducible. Then if the 
original representation of the group G under 
discussion is denoted by I, T is said to be 
expressed in terms of its irreducible con- 
stituents and we write 


T(A;) = D®(A,;) + D®(A,) + --- + D®(A,). 


A matrix of IT is thus the direct sum of 
matrices, one from each of the irreducible 
representations. Note that this is a different 
concept from the sum of two matrices. The 
direct sum means that they are strung out 
down the main diagonal with zeros else- 
where. 

If we have a group s, t, u, --- and if we 
transform an element by one of the group 
elements we obtain the transform or con- 
jugate, thus ¢st is the transform of s by f. 
If s and ¢t are commutative, that is if st = ts, 
then tst-! = s and s is said to be invariant 
under ¢. In any group an element and all the 
elements into which it may be transformed 
by all the elements of the group constitute 
a class of elements. In an abelian group each 
element is invariant and constitutes a class 
by itself; hence if the group is finite the 
number of classes is the order of the group. 
In the symmetric permutation group all 
elements with the same cyclic structure are 
in the same class as noted above. In a 
non-symmetric group elements with the same 
cyclic structure may not be all in the same 
class. 

It is a fact that the number of non-equiva- 
lent irreducible representations of any finite 
group equals the number of its classes. Thus 
the symmetric group on three letters has 
three classes and three irreducible repre- 
sentations. We show this in the table below: 


° 


122 

o 0 

axe (il) - @ ( F 
0 w 
@: al 

ab (1) (—1) ( A 
1 O 
0 w 

be (1) (1) ie ) B 
wo O 
a 

ac (1) (-1) ( C 
w O 


The first of these representations is of 
dimension one and is the representation in 
which every element corresponds to the 
identity matrix. The second is of dimension 
one also and three of the elements correspond 
to the identity matrix, three to the matrix 
(—1). The third is of dimension 2 and is a 
faithful representation 

It is a fact that every finite group may be 
made simply isomorphic to a permutation 
group, indeed in many ways. In particular 
it may have a faithful representation as a 
regular permutation group, that is a group 
in which every letter is replaced by every 
other letter of the group by one and only one 
permutation, which means that no permuta- 
tion (except the identity) leaves any letter 
invariant. In this procedure the number of 
letters is the order of the group. Thus the 
symmetric group on three letters is of order 
6, and hence may have a faithful represen- 
tation as a regular permutation group on six 
letters. It is also a fact that there always 
exists a matrix which will transform this 
representation into the sum of its irreducible 
constituents and that in this reduced form 
every irreducible representation will appear 
and that the number of times it appears is 
equal to its dimension. We saw above that 
the symmetric group on three letters (whose 
order is six) had exactly three irreducible 
representations, two of dimension one and 
one of dimension two. In the reduced form 
the representation of dimension two should 
therefore appear twice, as is indeed the case. 
From this we conclude that the sum of the 
squares of the dimensions of the irreducible 
representations should equal the order of 
the group. That is, in the case under con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


sideration: 1? + 1? + 2? = 6. To give the 
notion a little concrete reality we exhibit 
the above mentioned symmetric group and 
the transforming matrix and the reduced 
form. 

As a regular permutation group the group 
is as follows: FE = identity, A = x :%4-Xore- 
tats, Bo = W405 - Lola 3e, Ca — weet n 
U3t4, D = x0 3to-Xstets , F = Wor 3-VslsLe . 
Interpreted as a group of linear transforma- 
tions (whose matrices give the regular repre- 
sentation) we have: 


Pgs Nor: eae 
BORIS Se. ee 
A eens andes fae 
Pe oes sctoc 
i saat vegeta 
eR ic oc 
RGR ste A PRPC Peete cc fs 
ee are Lae Zeno pile 
payne 7 ee ree 
pb ak illtiie a = ee ere 
eh omanecs pile eee 
zeae Somes PE epson: 
Bia ce eh see ee 
Bee he een a 
pads a 
et cata ree 
Nusa oses a 
Katie ee ines eae 
The matrix 
(i a i tse 
11 1 -1 -1 -1 
T = tae OU, @, @ 
~~ 100 0 i oP @ 
lo 0 0 lo@ @& 
iiveas® © 0) 
with the inverse 
(ito. OO. 2 
| 1 12070 O 2 
piaill 120.0 0 2? 
Sab Sahoo 9 2: oO 
1-10 2 2? 0 
{1-10 26726 0 | 


will transform the regular representation in 
this fashion 


TET? = EB, TAT = Ag - piesa 


where the matrices for the primed represen- 
tation are as follows: 


oorceced & 
Sn Ss OROROrS) 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
1 


oorod & 
ooorco 
= — J — a) 


ik 
@ = 
® @ 
ALSO 
0 0 
) 0 


& 

f] 
Soooor 
cooorno 
eocooroo 


Aprit 1951 JOHNSTON: THEORY 


items Oke OF OK 0) 20 yl OO OF UO 
O5— 1510-0), (0) 10 H=t 0 O © 0 
O 0.0 @ WO Oo OO ce oO 0 
eee Ome O82 210) 910) 0 Cr=\""0 06 © 0 © 
Cc O00 O UV @ Oo OO 0-0. @ 
0 -O- OO: GE 0 O 0 O60 
LO 0 0 OO lL OO. 0 O 
GQ ie OD Or Oe O ao O 0-0 
Yo 0 oe OW OD Oo O PO OO 
Da—sj70 0) 0) 20) 0 bY =\"\0 0 O wo O O 
eo 0 0 CO eo 0 OO O FO 
o 0 @ @ eG Yo O00 OO 


It is a simple matter to verify this result by 
a little computation. Indeed it is only neces- 
sary to verify it for two of the “generators,” 
say A and B. 

We note a few simple and interesting facts 
about the representations of a finite group. 
In the first place there always exists a matrix 
which will transform all the matrices of a 
representation of a finite group into unitary 
matrices. This is also true of many infinite 
groups. All the representations we have 
noted so far have been unitary representa- 
tions and we shall always assume that our 
representations are unitary. When two 
equivalent representations are unitary, the 
transforming matrix which carries one repre- 
sentation into the other may be chosen to be 
unitary. For convenience the transforming 
matrix 7 above was not so chosen, but it 
could have been. 

If we have an zrreducible representation of 
dimension 1; of a group of order g and we 
construct the /j vectors in the g-dimensional 
space of the group elements, then we have a 
set of orthogonal unitary vectors (except 
that the “Hermitian length” of the vectors 
is \/q/l,). Thus for the two dimensional rep- 
resentation of the symmetric group on three 
letters we have the four vectors (1, w, w’, 
‘Us, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, lt w, w”), (0, 0, 0, 1, w, w), 
(1, w?, w, 0, 0, 0). If we add to this system 
Is , 13 etc. vectors corresponding to other non- 
equivalent irreducible representations in the 
g-dimensional space of the group elements 
we then have asystem of /j + + 13+ --- 
unitary orthogonal vectors, with the same 
assumptions as to the Hermitian length of 
the vectors. Thus in the case of the three rep- 
resentations of the symmetric group above 
we should have to add to the four vectors 
above the two vectors (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1), and 
(1,1,1, —1, —1, —1). These last two vectors 


OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


123 


each correspond to representations of dimen- 
sion one so that the Hermitian length in 
each case would be 1/6. We write the six 
vectors together so that the relation is more 
clearly discernable. 


ik it a arb 1 
blot =1—1 =1 
lwo 0 O 0 
00 0 lo & w? 
00 0 I Pw 
1 wo w 0 O 0 


If D(R) is the matrix corresponding to the 
element F in any particular representation 
I of the group G then the sum of the ele- 
ments in the main diagonal of D(R)—that 
is, the trace of D(R)—is the characteristic of 
Rk for that particular representation; it is 
usually denoted by the symbol x(R). When 
R runs through all the group elements there 
results a set of g numbers, which may be 
interpreted as a vector in the g dimensional 
space of the group elements. As is well known 
the trace of a matrix is invariant under 
transformations. Hence it is a fact that every 
element in the same class will have the same 
characteristic in any particular representa- 
tion, and it is customary therefore in general 
to write x(C;) in lieu of x(R) where C; rep- 
resents the class of elements to which R 
belongs. If therefore G contains k classes, 
Ci, C2,---, C., containing g;, go, -:- , gx 
elements respectively, where of course 
g. + go + --- + gs = g, we shall have for 
a particular representation the k numbers 
x(Ci), x(C2), --- , x(Cx), and these may be 
interpreted as a vector in the k dimensional 
space of the classes. This vector is sometimes 
called a character of G. G would thus have a 
character for each representation, but we 
shall reserve the term for what are sometimes 
called simple characters, that is the char- 
acters of the k irreducible representations 
D®(A), D®(A), --- , D® (A). Characters 
of other representations can be called com- 
pound characters or generalized characters 
if it is necessary to refer to them. It is evi- 
dent that two equivalent irreducible repre- 
sentations have the same character. We shall 
use a superscript to denote the particular 
representation which gives rise to a character 
and a subscript to denote the particular 
class to which a characteristic belongs, thus 
x'(C;) represents the characteristic of each 


124 


element in the class C; for the representa- 
tion D(A). 

Evidently if we are in possession of all the 
irreducible representations of G the process 
of writing down a table of characters, es- 
sentially a matrix of k columns, will be a 
trivial one. To obtain the irreducible repre- 
sentations may except for elementary cases 
be a tedious process. However, there are ways 
by which the characters may be obtained 
directly. These too may become laborious 
if we proceed to too complicated groups. 
Methods of simplifying and improving such 
processes will delight and inspire or vex and 
impede the pure mathematician, as the case 
may be. However, the physicist frequently 
makes use of only those characters which are 
most readily obtainable and so his case is 
not a hopeless one. For the symmetric group 
in particular the necessary characters are 
easily obtainable. 

We make a few general observations con- 
cerning the characters of the symmetric 
group. We observe first that the permutations 
of the symmetric group may be divided into 
two equal sub-sets, the even permutations 
and the odd permutations. The even permu- 
tations are those which leave invariant the 
alternating function 
IP = Gh = Ga = aa) > a) 290 Gh > aa) 

(Gy = ae) (Ga = 47) 20° 


The odd permutations are those which re- 
verse the sign of P. Evidently the even per- 
mutations form a group, the alternating group 
on n letters. We have noted that there is a 
representation of the symmetric group cor- 
responding toeach partition of n. Let usmake 
a diagram corresponding to a partition, say 
the partition (A;, A», A3, °°: ). Let us put 
di dots equally spaced in a horizontal row. 
Immediately below let us place \» dots the 
leftmost one immediately below the leftmost 
one in the top row and put each dot below 
one in the line above. We place \; dots in a 
similar manner in the third row and so on. 
We have thus constructed a sort of triangu- 
lar matrix of dots, and to every partition 
there will correspond such a diagram. If we 
transpose one of these matrices about its 
main diagonal, we will change it into another 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


one of the diagrams. Two partitions whose 
diagrams are so related are called associated 
partitions. Thus the partition (5, 2) of 7 with 
the diagram is associated with the 


partition (2, 2, 1, 1, 1) of 7 which has -- as 


its diagram. In case the dot matrix is sym- 
metric about the main diagonal, the partition 
is said to be self-associated. Thus (4, 1, 1, 1) 
with the diagram ---- is a self-associated 


partition of 7. The representations corre- 
sponding to associated partitions are associ- 
ated representations; a characteristic of an 
even class in a representation is the same as 
the characteristic of that same class in the 
associated representation, while a character- 
istic of an odd class is the negative of the 
characteristic in the associated representa- 
tion. We thus see that when we know the 
character of a representation, we at once 
know the character of the associated repre- 
sentation. We observe also that it follows 
that the characteristics of the odd classes in 
a self-associated representation are all zero. 

We observe that we always let Ci repre- 
sent the class consisting of the identity alone 
and that hence x‘(C;) is always the dimen- 
sion of the representation D™(A), being the 
trace of the identity matrix. We tabulate 
below the tables of characters for the sym- 
metric group on four symbols and on five 
symbols: 


“Partition Na 

\ er 0 was 

é (4 |(, 1)| 2, 2)] @.1| rt) ele || Partition 

\ + tt * ) ments| &iving ris 

S itil ea aa to class 
Class NS class 
S 

(4, 0,0, 034 | 1 3 2 3 1 1 (4) 
(251 080)= 1 1 0} —1 | -—1 6 (G3, 1) 
(1.0,1.0), 1 0} —1 0 1 8 (@, il, 1) 
(0.2.0. 0)4 1 —1 —1 1 3 (2, 2) 
(0, 0. 0, 1)_ 1 —1 0 |) 1 6 (Qis il, we 3) 


j associated partitions. 
tt associated partitions. 
* self associated partition. 


Aprin 1951 JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 125 
Partition 

(5) (4, 1) (3, 2) (3, 1, 1) | (2, 2,1) (2, ib, 5, (Gl, wat No. of Partiti yee 2 

t IM | ARE oa Sa meal ah tae PS) ce erases re ee 
(5, 0, 0, 0, 0), 1 4 5 6 5 4 il 1 (5) 
(Sante 0.0) 0)- 1 2 1 0 =i =9) =i 10 (4, 1) 
(290s 10.0) 1 1 =a Oval sat 1 i 20 @, i, 1) 
(ls 2, 05 ONO) 1 0 I —2 il 0 i 15 (3,2) 

Bi@iev0.50; 1,0). i 0 = 0 1 0 1 30 @, il, wt, il) 

(Oma 10: 0) 1 = i 0 =i 1 =i 20 (Os D iby 
(OF080. 0:1), 1 = 0 1 0 = 1 24 (yi, Hs in) 


7 associated partitions. 
Tj associated partitions. 
Tit associated partitions. 
* self-associate partition. 


We observe that if g is the order of the 
group and g; is the number of elements in the 


Class C; and that if we multiply the char- 
acteristic in each box by 4 / 7‘ then the result- 


g 
ing matrix will be a unitary matrix—that is 
we shall have 


k=n 
~ Ors Uj 
k=1 


I 


8:3 


theory of the solution of the fourth degree 
equation), the alternating group on four 
letters, the simple group of order 168, and 
the non-cyclic group of order 21, Asa permu- 
tation group the octic group may be repre- 
sented as follows. 


identity, ac-bd, abcd, adcb, ab-cd, ad-be, ac, bd. 
C1 Ce 03 C3 C4 (OF C; Cs 


There are thus five classes and the classes 
may be enumerated as shown above where the 


and : d 
il class to which the element belongs is indi- 
PT EM a cated immediately below the class. The table 
yk Aj = 03; ° 
a= of characters follows: 

So far we have discussed the symmetric \ ee | F 
group, and that is what primarily interests us \_ tation Lee 
here. It so happens that the characteristics Tr \| Te | ts | Ts | Te | elements 
here are all real so that the unitary property a 
of the matrix of the characters does not be- =~" = 
come evident. By way of contrast and com- C, 1 2 1 1 ie ae 
pleteness we give the table of characters for C2 ihe ECA Uo heed 

: . : Y as 23 | 2 
some simple nonsymmetric groups, in par- ee : ‘ oe ; | a ie 
ticular the “‘octic” group (a group of order a ‘ i tala ae coats 
eight which plays an important role in the # Sallis 

Representation Num- 
ber of 

T1 T2 T3 Ty Ts Ts ele- 
ments 

Class in class 
identity 1 6 7 8 3 3 
elements of order 2 1 2 —1 0 —1 --1 21 
elements of order 4 1 (0) —1 0 1 1 2 
elements of order 3 1 0 1 —1 0 0 F 2 
24 elements of order 7 1 —1 0 1 a(—1 Av 7) ea = tv 7) = 
inverses of elements 1 —1 0 1 $(—1 — 7vV7) 4(—1 + 2V 7) { 

in above class 


126 


The alternating group on 4 letters (also 
known as the tetrahadral group) is as follows: 


iden; ab-cd, ac-bd, ad-be; abc, acd, adb, bdc; ach, adc, abd, bed 
C1 C2 C2 Che Ch Oy OB Gh On Gs GG 


The table of characters: 


Nes 
senta- No. of 
ME © (3, 1) (2, 2) (2, 2)’ | elements 
\ in class 

Class Ne 

Ch if 3 1 1 1 

C2 1 =i 1 1 3 

G3 1 0 w w? 4 

Gs 1 0 w? w 4 


The simple group of order 168 is tabulated 
at the foot of page 125. 


The noncyclic group of order 21: 


eae | Num- 

tation ber of 

\ T1| T2| Ps TX Ts lee 
in 
Class 

Class \ 

identity iL aby al 3 3 1 

seven ele- | 1 | w| w? 0 0 7 

ments of 

order 3 

inverses of | 1 | w?/ w 0 0 7 

above ele- 

ments E 

three ele- | 1 | 1 | 1 |4(—1+iv/7)|4(-1—iv/7)| 3 

ments of 

order 7 : 

inverses of |1]1|1 |4(-1—iV/7)|4(-1+iv/7)| 3 

above ele- 

ments 


So far we have dealt with finite groups. 
We consider infinite groups, in particular con- 
tinuous groups. The set of all nonsingular 
n-rowed matrices with elements in the com- 
plex number field constitutes a group, the 
full linear group of dimension n. We shall 
be concerned with certain subgroups thereof. 
In particular we shall consider those groups 
in which the elements are continuous func- 
tions of one or more parameters, whose do- 
main of variability may be disconnected or 
simply or multiply connected. If the domain 
is connected, the group is a simply continu- 
ous group, otherwise a mixed continuous 
group. We assume that the elements of the 
matrices possess derivatives of all necessary 
orders with regard to the parameters. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 4 


Moreover, we shall consider groups whose 
matrices are unitary—the unitary groups; 
and also we shall consider groups whose de- 
terminants are all 1—the unimodular groups. 
If we consider groups whose matrices are 
both, we have the unimodular unitary 
groups. 

Ever since we studied elementary analytic 
geometry we have been familiar with therota- 
tions of the Cartesian plane about the origin. 
This group is the two dimensional pure rota- 
tion group. The matrices are all real orthog- 
onal (hence unitary) and have determinant 
one. Hence the pure rotation group is real, 
unimodular and unitary. It is a fact that the 
real unimodular orthogonal group of dimen- 
sion n will always have exactly in(n — 1) 
independent parameters; hence in the pres- 
ent case a single parameter. (If we add the 
real orthogonal transformations of deter- 
minant —1, we have the rotation reflection 
group and we now have two parameters.) 
The familiar transformation 


/ 


x’ =xcosd?—ysng 


/ 


y =xsingdg+yecos¢d 


- 
cos 
gives us the rotation group the parameter 
being ¢ where —7 < ¢ < wasimply con- 
nected domain. There is only one parameter 
and it appears additively in the group, that 
is, if{¢} represents the element whose param- 
eter is ¢ then {¢ + ¢’} = {¢}{¢’}. The 
parameter appears additively and the group 
is abelian, every element thus being in a 
class by itself. We seek the non-equivalent 
irreducible representations of the two-dimen- 
sional pure rotation group. They are (e*”®) 
where ¢ is the parameter and m is a rational 
mbteger, 7 —) 2 — 2) ele 
This time we are concerned with the actual 
representations rather than merely with the 
characteristics, though of course the char- 
acteristic can immediately be read off. 

If we extend the pure rotation group te 
include also the matrices of determinant —1 


we have the entire “rotation-reflection”’ 
group, the aggregate of all real orthogonal 


cos 
with the matrix 
sing 


Aprit 1951 


matrices. We may get them by adding to 
the above matrices the matrices 


—cosd me 
sing cosd 
We now have two parameters, the continu- 
ous parameter ¢ as before and the discrete 
parameter d which may take either of the 


values 1 or —1; and the set of matrices may 
be included in the formula 

ie 

cos 


dcosé — 
(o, d} = ( 
sing 
The group is no longer abelian—the set of 
matrices which constitute the pure rotations 
no longer consists of matrices each of which 
is a class by itself, for {¢, 1} and {—@, 1} 
now constitute a class. Also all elements 


—cosd “a 
sin@ cosd 

are in a class. The group is now a mixed 
continuous group since the domain of vari- 
ability of the parameters is no longer 
connected. 

We have of course the trivial representa- 
tion of the rotation reflection group in which 
every element corresponds to the matrix (1) 


and also the one-dimensional representation 
in which the matrices 


cos@ —singd 
( )sormspond to (1) while the 
sing coso z 
—cosd sind\ — 
matrices ( correspond to(—1). 
sing cosd 


The other irreducible representations are two 
dimensional and in them we have the cor- 


respondence 
cos@ —singd gH.) 
=> 
sing cosd 0 eine 
—cosd sind 0 ee 
oe 
sin@ cosd Ge () 
for all properly positive integral values of m. 
We now consider the irreducible represen- 


JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


127 


tations of the three dimensional pure rotation 
group and of the three dimensional rotation- 
reflection group. 

As we have observed the three dimensional 
pure rotation group (real orthogonal ma- 
trices with determinant +1) has $3(8 — 1) 
= 3 parameters. There is a very close rela- 
tion between the representation of this group 
and the representations of the unimodular 
unitary group in two dimensions. From the 
latter we may get the former; it is also true 
that from the latter we may get what are 
called the “ambiguous” representations of 
the pure rotation group-—they are not truly 
representations but they play an important 
role in the theory of the spin of the electron. 
We have an irreducible representation of the 
pure rotation group for each zero or positive 
integral value of 7 as given by the expression 
below. The rotation is here given by its 
Kulerean angle {a, 8, y} the three parameters 
of the group. The dimension is 27 + 1, and 
uw’ and uw take on the 27 + 1 values —y, 
—j+1,---,—2, —1,0,1,2,---,7-—1,7. 
u’ gives the row of the matrix, u the column, 
so that the element in the upper left-hand 
corner is in the position —j, —J; the element 
in the upper right corner is in the position 
—j, j7. The representation is denoted by 
D® ‘a, B, y\. The element in the yp’, » posi- 
tion is given by the expression 


= eS 1) 


atv GE eIG= WIG we )G=2)! 
Gf = OlGa-e—a@)wli@-are =~)! 


-e"'“(cos3p)* “ “(sindB)* *e™ 


DE {apy Yur an 


where 


‘ao / 

larger of J 0 <x < smaller of JJ mde \ 
wax \i+v! 

For j = 0 this reduces to the trivial repre- 
sentation in which every rotation corresponds 
to the one-dimensional matrix (1). For 7 = 1 
this representation is three dimensional and 
the matrix corresponding to the rotation 


‘a, B, y} is given below, the half angles 
having been changed to integral angles 


through elementary trigonometric identities: 


128 
Nal COs _. Sin\By Le COsiBne. 
|e Ser —eia Vi me 9 et 
ye J ges as 
AB sin Bey cos 8 AG sin Be’ 
- l= Coss. sin B _l+ecose . 
irra en era 5s Carers et 


For half integral values of 7 we have the 
ambiguous representation the form of the 
general element of which is just like that for 
integral values of 7 except that before each 
element there appears the + sign. This does 
not mean that the sign has just not yet been 
chosen and will be chosen to suit our pur- 
poses. It is impossible to do this. The sign 
must be left ambiguous and we pick which- 
ever one will fit into the particular object 
we have in mind. This time yw’ and yu take 
the half-integral values —j, —j+l,-:- , 
—t,4,---,j. Thus if 7 is } the representa- 
tion is of dimension 27 + 1 = 2 and the four 
positions of the representing matrices are as 
shown: —3, —4 The actual repre- 

1 1 
2) 2 


sentation when j = 


a 

Bis ce og 

enna ease geist Sauce ae Siero 
y, % 

e*'* sin B aad e*'* cos B gt 
2 2 


The three dimensional rotation reflection 
group may be thought of as the direct 
product of the three dimensional pure rota- 
tion group and the three dimensional reflec- 
tion group consisting of the two matrices 


1 @ © — Os (0) 
S01 Olen = = 0 —1 0 
0. @ dl 0 0 -1 


(A group G is the direct product of H and 
K if H and K are subgroups of G, have no 
common element except the identity, if every 
element of H is commutative with every ele- 
ment of K and if every element of G equals 
the product of an element of H and an ele- 
ment of K). If G is the direct product of H 
and K, that is, in symbols, if G = H x K, 
and if D{” (s) is an irreducible representation 
of H and D{? (#) is an irreducigle representa- 
tion of K then an irreducible representation 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


of G is obtained by making the element st of 
G correspond to the matrix D{” (s) K D{? @),. 
that is to the Kronecker product of the ma- 
trices, one from the representation of H and 
the other from the representation of K. It 
is thus seen that the number of irreducible 
representations of G equals the product of 
the number of irreducible representations of 
H multiplied by the number of irreducible 
representations of K (provided of course that 
in each case the number of representations: 
is finite). Since H and K are commutative it 
might seem that we could obtain another 
representation by taking the Kronecker 
products in the reverse order, but it is a fact 
that the representation D{®(s) * D{?(@) is 
equivalent to (may be transformed into) the 
representation D{?(t) X D{(s). 

Evidently the three dimensional reflection 
group has two non-equivalent irreducuble 
representations, the trivial one in which both 
I and —/ correspond to the matrix (1), and 
the one in which J corresponds to the matrix 
(1) and —/ corresponds to the matrix (—1). 
Thus the rotation reflection group has a 
representation in which each element of the 
rotation group corresponds to the matrix to 
which it corresponds in a given representa- 
tion of the rotation group, while the negative 
of each element of the rotation group also 
corresponds to the matrix to which the origi- 
nal element corresponds in the representation 
of the rotation group. Also the rotation re- 
flection group has a representation in which 
each element of the rotation group corre- 
sponds to the matrix to which it corresponds 
in a given representation of the rotation 
group, while the negative of each element of 
the rotation group corresponds to the nega- 
tive of the matrix to which the element of 
the rotation group corresponds. Thus are ob- 
tained from the irreducible representations 
of the rotation group the irreducible repre- 
sentations of the rotation reflection group. 

It is a fact that the Schrédinger equation 
HW = E-W associated with an atomic system 
consisting of a nucleus and n electrons in 
their orbits about the nucleus is “invariant 
under a group”’ consisting of the direct prod- 
uct of the symmetric group on n elements and 
the rotation group and the reflection group. 
It is a fact that the energy levels for which 
this equation has a solution are the “‘eigen- 


AprIL 1951 


values” of the system and that associated 
with each eigenvalue is a set of lmearly inde- 
pendent “eigenfunctions” which gives the 
probabilities for a certain state of the atom. 
The group-theoretic properties discussed 
above, in particular the representations of 
the rotation group and of the reflection group 
and the characters of the symmetric group, 
have been employed to shed light on this im- 
portant question of the state of the atom; but 
the complete story of that application is too 
long to be told here. 


MITRINOVITCH: AN EQUATION OF NEMENYI AND TRUESDELL 


129 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Buicuretpt, H. F. Finite collineation groups. 

BurnsippE, W. Theory of groups of finite order. 

Lirrtewoon, D. E. The theory of growp characters. 

Murnacuan, F. D. The theory of group repre- 
sentations. 

VAN DER WAERDEN, B. L. Die gruppentheoretische 
Methode in der Quantenmechanik. 

Wey, H. The classical groups. 

Wryt, H., anp Ropinson, H. P. The theory of 
groups and quantum mechanics. 

Wiener, E. Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendung 
auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren. 


MATHEMATICS.—0On an equation of Neményi and Truesdell. D.S. Mirrinovircu, 
Institute of Mathematics, Skopje, Jugoslavia. (Communicated by C. Trues- 


dell.) 


1. Consider the differential equation 


RY if 
eG? — 1) = 0 
gw 5 , 


@= i) (1) 
where 7 is a positive integer, F = F(z), 
f = f(z), and primes denote differentiation 
with respect to z. P. Neményi and C. 
Truesdell! have reduced the general equi- 
librium problem in the membrane theory of 
shells of revolution to the integration of this 
single equation. I have recently given a 
procedure? which systematically yields cases 
in which (1) can be integrated by quad- 
ratures. In this note I present another 
method of integration for the equation (1). 
2. By introducing the changes of variable 


P= ex (fai), f= exn(f ots), 


we may put (1) into the form 


1Cf. Nemenyt, P., Bygningsstatiske Meddelel- 
ser, 1936; Nemmnyt, P., and TRUESDELL, C., Proc. 
Nat. Acad. Sci. 29: 159-162. 1943; TRuESDELL, C., 
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 58: 96-166. 1945; 61, 128- 
133. 1947. 

2 Mirrinovitcu, D.S., Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sei. Paris 231 : 327-328. 1950. 


(G — rg)! + G? — rg? 


0, (A = 1 — n*), 


or, equivalently, 


6! = G2 — yg? = 0, (2) 
where we have put 
G—-Ag= 8. (3) 


From equations (2) and (3) we have 


=f) 2S 
G= AG 
Nea 


MHA 
NOS aD) 


(A = + Vr? + (A — 2296’), 


where the sign + is to be taken alike in the 
two expressions. 

Consequently a solution of (1) is given by 
the formulae 


z z 
F = A exp (/ cas) , ff = Bexp (J ats), 
20 z 


=0 


where A and B are two constants of integra- 
tion, 2) is a suitably chosen numerical con- 
stant. G and g are two functions of z defined 
by (4), in which there occurs a function of 2, 
namely 6(z), which is completely arbitrary. 

3. In a study now in press I apply the 
method of §2 to differential equations of a 
much more general type. 


130 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


ARCHEOLOGY .—Notes on aboriginal pottery from Montana.! Waupo R. WEDEL, 


U.S. National Museum. 


Aboriginal pottery from Montana is no 
longer news to students of Plains prehistory 
and ethnography. Since 1940 its occurrence 
in various localities throughout the State 
has been noted several times in the archeo- 
logical literature. Moreover, most historic 
Indian tribes of the region, including specifi- 
cally the Blackfoot, Gros Ventres, Sarsi, Sho- 
shoni, and Assiniboin, seem to have retained 
traditions recalling a time when they made 
pottery. Even the Crow, for whom ethnog- 
raphers have apparently recorded no such 
traditions, are coming under progressively 
deeper suspicion of having been potters since 
their still undated arrival in the drainage of 
the Yellowstone. 

The ethnographic data bearing on this 
subject have been well summarized, and 
some of their implications discussed, by 
Ewers (1945). The archeological evidences, 
which promise to give unsuspected historic 
depth to the native use of pottery on the 
headwaters of the Missouri River system, 
represent mainly materials and data gath- 
ered during the 1930’s in course of work 
relief programs. Much of this latter informa- 
tion, which is of primary importance for the 
understanding of Montana prehistory, as 
well as some scattering data more recently 
gathered by River Basin Surveys parties, 
unfortunately still remains unpublished. 
From what is in print (Mulloy, 1942, 1945; 
Nelson, 1942, 1943), however, it is clear that 
pottery-using peoples have at one time or 
another scattered their traces, if thinly, 
throughout a number of Montana’s stream 
valleys westward almost to the continental 
divide. Still to be determined, preferably on 
the basis of larger and better controlled 
samplings than are at present available, are 
the exact nature and chronological positions 
of the several pottery complexes apparently 
indicated, as well as the associated artifact 
types and subsistence economies. The loca- 
tion of the region in the heart of the erstwhile 
‘notteryless” Plains culture area lends more 
than usual interest to the problems raised. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary, 
Smithsonian Institution. 


In the present discussion I do not intend 
to answer any of the questions implied 
above. My purpose is rather to put on record 
a few descriptive notes regarding several 
hitherto unreported or undescribed finds of 
pottery in northwestern Montana, all in the 
Missouri River watershed. These I have 
compared provisionally with materials al- 
ready described from other localities lying 
mainly to the south and east, and also with 
what has been suggested or reconstructed 
from tribal traditions or historic documents 
regarding pottery of the historic Indians in 
the region. Though I have not personally 
examined the sites from which the material 
at hand is reported to have come, such 
information as has been furnished me seems 
to warrant the present notice. 

The material immediately under consider- 
ation consists of small samples only and 
obviously does not give a complete picture 
of the material culture complex presumably 
represented in each case.” It includes a series 
of less than 100 sherds from a site near 
Ethridge, in Toole County; two smaller lots 
from two locations in Teton and Cascade ~ 
Counties; and reports on two other sites in 
Chouteau and Cascade Counties. There is 
also a series of nearly 200 sherds from a cairn 
on the Crow Indian Reservation south of 
Billings. Only this latter series can be said 
to have been collected under anything lke 
controlled conditions, or by a professional 
archeologist. The descriptive notes that fol- 
low are based on visual examination or, at 
most, on use of a hand lens. 

*The Ethridge specimens were collected by 
Giles Ortscheid, formerly of Cut Bank, who turned 
them over to Claude Schaeffer, Museum of the 
Plains Indian, Browning, by whom they were 
forwarded to me. The specimens and records from 
Teton, Cascade, and Chouteau Counties were 
furnished by J. Robert Wells, formerly of Great 
Falls, to John C. Ewers, associate curator of eth- 
nology, U.S. National Museum, who turned them 
over to me. The specimens from the Crow Indian 
Reservation were excavated by N. C. Nelson in 
1941 for the American Museum of Natural History, 
and were sent me on loan by J. A. Ford, assistant 
curator of North American archeology at that in- 
stitution. I am indebted to all these men, and par- 
ticularly to Schaeffer, Ewers, and Ford, for their 


willingness to place these materials at my dis- 
posal and to supply relevant information. 


Aprit 1951 


Ethridge Site, Toole County.—In the sample 
forwarded to me from this site by Schaeffer there 
are approximately 100 sherds, plus arrowpoints, 
scrapers, other chipped flints, shell fragments, 
and, interestingly enough, three fragments of 
brass. They are from a camp site near a bison 
fall, situated 8 miles (airline) northwest of Eth- 
ridge, in the Marias River drainage. The bison 
bones and cultural materials are found at the 
lower end of a deep cleft in an east-facing escarp- 
ment some 200 feet high. According to Ortscheid 
(letter to Schaeffer, May 18, 1950), the sherds 
“seemed to be mostly 5 or 6 inches below the 
surface and some on the surface where the wind 
had blown clean spots. The copper or brass frag- 
ments were close to the surface. The stone chips 
and points ... were mixed indiscriminately from 
surface to undisturbed soil, which varied from 
six inches to a couple of feet in places . . . most 
of the material was from the center of the camp- 
site [which] covers several acres.” 

With regard to paste, color range, texture, and 
other technological details, examination with a 
hand lens seems to reveal no significant variation 
among the sherds at hand. Like much Northern 
Plains pottery, these usually have a gray to dark 
gray paste, occasionally fired to a light gray, 
brown, or buff on the exterior surface. Inclusions 
vary in amount and coarseness, even within in- 
dividual sherds. Characteristically, they consist 
of crushed granite in medium to coarse angular 
particles, less commonly of rounded and water- 
worn gravel. They are usually only moderately 
abundant, and do not show on sherd surfaces. 
Exterior hardness varies from 3 to 4, occasionally 
reaching 4.5. Interior surfaces are rather rough 
and uneven. Carbonized material (presumed to be 
food remains) adhere to the inner surfaces of 
many fragments. The sherds vary in thickness 
from 6 to 12 mm; most are in the neighborhood 
of 8 mm. There are no recognizable base frag- 
ments, handles, or other constructional features, 
nor is there anything to indicate the range in 
vessel shapes and sizes. 

With respect to surface finish and treatment, 
three main groups may be recognized. Fourteen 
sherds, including three rims from at least two 
vessels, are evidently fabric-marked (Fig. 1, A-F). 
These sherds range from 9 to 12 mm in thick- 
ness, which is considerably heavier than any 
other series present. The exterior surfaces have 
been strongly impressed by some fabric that left 
a dimpled texture, which occasionally somewhat 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


131 


suggests knotting or a net impression. Sherds in 
the national collections with strikingly similar 
surface treatment come from a Middle Wood- 
land site near Gala, Va. (Holmes, 1903, pl. 133, 
upper right). This is an eastern Woodlands pot- 
tery trait; so far as my observations go, it is not 
common, and has apparently not been hereto- 
fore reported, in the Plains or on upper Missouri 
Valley potterywares. 

Thirty-eight sherds, of which 16 are rim pieces, 
I have somewhat hesitantly classed as cord- 
roughened (Fig. 1, G-J). On some pieces there 
is no doubt that the impressions were made with 
a twisted cord or other fibrous element; in others, 
superficially very similar in appearance, the im- 
pressions do not conclusively show twisting of the 
element used. The group is rather variable; some 
sherds show deep fine impressions, whereas others 
have the impressions widely spaced or nearly ob- 
literated.. Despite this variability, most of the 
sherds would be assigned with little hesitation to 
the cord-roughened category, if they had been 
taken from a prehistoric Central Plains village 
site. 

Eighteen sherds, all body fragments, are plain 
surfaced. Surfaces are moderately well smoothed, 
but often uneven and never polished. Occasion- 


ally there is some unevenness — suggesting 
smoothed-over cord-roughening or possibly simple 
stamping. 


Not included in the above counts, are about a 
dozen body sherds which can perhaps be described 
as weakly carinate. On each there is a perceptible 
shoulder bearing vertical or occasionally diagonal 
notches (Fig. 2, A-C), made with some thin- 
ended or triangulate-tipped instrument, and 
spaced usually at intervals of about $ inch. Most 
of these sherds are plain ware. Three are what I 
have tentatively called cord-roughened, and one 
of these latter bears diagonal notches made by 
impressing a cord-wrapped instrument (Fig. 
2, G). 

Significantly enough, there are in the whole 
series only two or three sherds, at most, which 
can be called simple stamped or fluted on the ex- 
terior surface. A number of small fragments can- 
not be satisfactorily identified as to surface 
treatment, and so are omitted from my counts 
and determinations. 

Rims are characteristically thickened or some- 
what bulbous in profile, with horizontal or out- 
sloping flattened upper lip surface. Most of them 
seem to conform rather closely to Mulloy’s rims 


132 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


Fic. 1.—Potsherds from camp site near Nthridge, Mont.: A-F, fabric-impressed; G-J, cord-roughened. 


of class A form at the Hagen site (Mulloy, 1942, 
p. 18). So far as I can see in the very limited 
sample at hand, there is no correlation between 
rim form, lip, or other related features and the 
type of surface treatment on the sherds. On cord- 
roughened rimsherds the flattened lip may be 
plain, weakly cord-roughened, or carelessly in- 
cised. On plain sherds the outer lip edge is some- 
times notched; in two instances, the lip panel 
bears diagonal impressions made with a cord- 
wrapped rod (Fig. 2, D, F); and in a third the 
same treatment was applied with a_ loosely 
wrapped tool to the outer surface of the neck 
below the flat panel (Fig. 2, E). 

The material culture complex of which the 
above described sherds were a part is inade- 
quately represented by the specimens at hand. It 
seems to include, however, numerous small, tri- 
angular projectile points, averaging under 25 mm 
in length, with straight to slightly concave base 
and a single pair of side notches just above the 


base. Three or four are unnotched, and perhaps 
an equal number can be classed as stemmed or 
corner-notched; none shows base notching. Ma- 
terials used include chalcedony, cherts of various 
colors, jasper, obsidian, and quartzite. All the 
points I have seen appear to be of types said to 
be common at many bison-kills of the Montana 
region, but with three exceptions they are per- 
haps somewhat less carefully made. They pre- 
sumably represent the products of late prehis- 
toric or protohistoric natives of the region. 

There appears to be nothing distinctive about 
the scrapers and other chipped flints sent me from 
the Ethridge site. 

The three pieces of brass, of course, must be 
attributed to Caucasian contact or influence, but 
it is not certain at the moment that they actually 
belong to the same complex as the sherds. The 
collector’s letter (Ortscheid to Schaeffer, May 18, 
1950) says they were ‘‘close to the surface”’ of the 
site. They are possibly intrusive; or they may 


Aprit 1951 


have been left by some later group than that re- 
sponsible for the pottery. There is nothing to in- 
dicate the nature of the objects from which the 
fragments came. 

Sites in Cascade, Teton, and Chouteau Coun- 
ties—Sherds from two sites in Cascade and Teton 
Counties, and notes on other occurrences in the 
same general region, were sent to Ewers in Sep- 
tember 1947, by J. Robert Wells, then of Great 
Falls. Ten of the sherds are said to have been 
found in the summer of 1933 “near a bison trap 
on the south-facing sandstone escarpment of 
what is locally called the ‘second bench’ between 
Ulm and Vaughn, Cascade County.” There is no 
further description of the locale of discovery. 

The sherds are mostly small, the largest not 
exceeding two inches in maximum diameter. In 
thickness they range from 5 to 8 mm; in hard- 
ness, from 3 to 4. Paste again is gray to dark 
gray in color, with a fine granular appearance. 
The aplastic consists of gravel, mostly or en- 
tirely in rounded particles. The three largest 
sherds show impressions identical with what I 
have classed in the Ethridge material as cord- 
roughening on the exterior surface; and all but 
one of the remaining fragments, in color, texture, 
surface finish, and other particulars, seem to be 
from vessels of similar construction and appear- 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


133 


ance. The single exception, though small and in- 
conclusive, shows several flutings somewhat rem- 
iniscent of nearly obliterated simple stamp im- 
pressions. Sherd interiors are usually uneven and 
only moderately well finished. There are no rim 
fragments. 

From the second site, described only as being 
“near to Chouteau in Pondera [Teton] County 
... not over two miles approximately south from 
the town,” there is a single large plain body sherd. 
This is remarkable chiefly for its thickness of 15 
mm, which far exceeds any of the other Montana 
sherds which have come under my scrutiny. It 
has a gray core, which becomes light buff to 
brown on the surfaces. Temper consists of quartz, 
mostly in angular particles. The piece is well- 
fired and hard. 

Wells’s letter of June 11, 1945, to Ewers, first 
reporting these pottery finds, notes two other oc- 
currences; from neither are there any specimens 
at hand. One of these finds was “in the ‘cut bank’ 
of the Missouri River at the Fair Grounds of 
Fort Benton, Chouteau County.” Here, according 
to Mr. Wells, “I found remains suggestive of the 
interrupted preparation of a meal. Some 18 inches 
below the present land surface I noticed a short 
stratum of charcoal upon which rested what ap- 
peared to be the flattened fragments of a cooking 


2 GM. 
LUN. 


Fig. 2.—Potsherds from camp site near Ethridge, Montana. A-C, carinate with punetations; D-G, 
cord-wrapped rod-impressed. 


134 


pot mixed with several split bison bones. Preserva- 
tion of the sherds was so poor that I am not sure 
they were kept. The presence of stone implements 
together with brass buttons upon about the same 
level might indicate a date near to the early 
historic period for these remains.”’ 

Also in Cascade County is another sherd- 
bearing site which “‘occupies the triangular piece 
of land west of the Missouri River and south of 
its tributary, the Sun River, near the mouth of 
the latter. This tract, now the grounds of the 
Meadowlark Country Club of Great Falls, was 
then (about 1920) under cultivation and a very 
fruitful source of artifacts especially in the fall 
and spring when the fields were bare. I had seen 
numerous sherds there on the surface before. 
...I recognized them for what they were. After 
this lapse of years I can only describe them as 
small, some + to 2 inch in thickness, gray, fairly 
hard, and without sufficient shape to serve as 
criteria for judging as to the form of the vessels 
from which they came. If memory serves, the ex- 
ternal surfaces, without exception, showed mark- 
ings which I considered indicative of shaping 
with a paddle wound with cord approximately 4 
inch in diameter. ... This site is now mostly oc- 
cupied by the Country Club golf course, so it 
would seem unlikely that sherds can now be 
found there on the surface, but there is still a 
possibility of finding them embedded in the south 
bank of the Sun River which was then a ‘cut 
bank’ some five or six feet in height. That bank 
showed evidence of the occupancy of the site for 
what seemed to me an extended period (inter- 
mittent occupancy, I should have said). Char- 
coal, split bison bones, and lithic artifacts could 
be observed several feet below the then ground 
level. I do not, however, recall finding sherds 
there.’”’ (Wells to Ewers, June 11, 1945). 

Two items in this last notice are of particular 
interest. One is the observer’s identification of the 
pottery markings as cord-wrapped paddle im- 
pressions; the other is the implication that sherds 
occurred exclusively or preponderantly on the 
surface but were not noted in the buried cultural 
strata partially exposed in the nearby cut bank. 


Further investigations here would seem to be in 


order. 

Pottery from the Yellowstone Valley.—My search 
of the published literature on Montana archeology 
has revealed pottery descriptions from four lo- 
calities in the Yellowstone drainage basin. These 
include the Hagen site, 5 miles southeast of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 4 


Glendive, in Dawson County, excavated by the 
Montana Archeological Survey and Works Proj- 
ects Administration and since described in com- 
mendable detail and clarity by Mulloy (1942); a 
rock cairn at Arrow Rock on the Crow Indian 
Reservation some 35 miles south of Billings, ex- 
cavated by Nelson (1942, 1943) for the American 
Museum of Natural History; Thirty Mile Mesa 
and Pompey’s Pillar Cuesta, some 30 or 40 
miles north and northeast of Billings; and Picto- 
graph Cave, near Billings. I have seen none of 
the material from the Hagen site, but Mulloy’s 
well-illustrated report is adequate for present pur- 
poses. As elsewhere noted, Nelson’s Arrow Rock 
collection has been placed at my disposal. For 
the last three localities above enumerated, and 
findings there by the Montana Archeological 
Survey, brief notes by Mulloy (1945, p. 520) are 
available. 

The Arrow Rock sherds were taken from a rock 
cairn situated on the floor of Pryor Canyon and 
partially trenched by Nelson. Here, in a “mixed 
earth and boulder deposit,” it was found that 
“at least the upper half of the accumulation was 
moderately rich in the usual stone objects, glass 
beads and animal bones. More abundant were 
bone and shell ornamental items, chiefly beads 
and pendants. The surprise was the collection of 
some 200 potsherds.” In the absence of word to 
the contrary, I assume that the glass beads and 
sherds came from the same levels or horizons 
within the cairn, and are to be regarded as chrono- 
logically associated finds. 

Nelson describes the sherds as ranging in sur- 
face color from buff to gray, in body thickness 
from three to nine millimeters, and in rim thick- 
ness from nine to fourteen millimeters. The pot- 
tery is “sometimes tempered with coarse quartz 
particles,” and “‘firg is well done.” He suggests 
that ‘both bowl and jar forms, some with charred 
food particles adhering to the inside,” are ap- 
parently represented. On the basis of surface 
treatment, he recognized three groups of sherds: 
plain surfaced, 128; corduroy surfaced, 67; and 
textile impressed (?), 2. 

Compared to the Ethridge and Cascade County 
samples, Nelson’s Arrow Rock sherds average 
generally smaller and thinner, few exceeding 6 mm 
in thickness. Many have little visible tempering 
material; others, by contrast, have quartz im- 
clusions that may exceed in size the particles in 
the more northerly sherds. In surface color, the 
Arrow Rock sherds seem to run to somewhat 


Aprit 1951 


darker tones, seldom showing the light buff or 
tan exteriors found on the Ethridge sherds. Most 
of the fragments are appreciably more gritty to 
the touch than the Ethridge-Cascade County 
sherds. What Nelson calls “‘corduroy surfaced” 
sherds are, without question, Mulloy’s fluted or 
what I have called simple stamped. The impress- 
ions, however, are much less regular and con- 
spicuous than those produced by the same or a 
similar technique among the historic Mandan, 
Arikara, Pawnee, and other Plains potters. At 
least one, and quite possibly both, of Nelson’s 
textile-surfaced sherds appear, from plasticene 
impressions, to be the same as the more plentiful 
fabric-impressed sherds from Ethridge. 

The pottery from the Hagen site, according to 
Mulloy (1942, pp. 11-388), represents ‘“‘a single 
rather well integrated cultural complex.” It is 
described as having a granular, somewhat varia- 
ble, paste; crushed rock or occasionally sand 
tempering; a hardness of 3 to 3.5; and a pre- 
dominantly gray color. Medium-sized jars or 
ollas seem to be characteristic forms; rims are 
variable and include both “collared” and “un- 
collared” forms; lips are wavy or smooth, in the 
latter case sometimes bearing incised or im- 
pressed linear decoration. About half the sherds 
recovered were plain; another fifth bear fluted or 
simple stamped surfaces. Incised lines, wrapped- 
rod impressions, brush roughening, single-cord 
impressions, check stamping, and dentate stamp- 
ing occur in decreasing order of frequency. In gen- 
eral technology, in vessel form, in design tech- 
niques (especially single-cord impressing, incising, 
and fluting), and in designs, the ware shows close 
similarities to the Mandan-Hidatsa pottery tradi- 
tion. Wrapped rod impressions and dentate 
stamping, on the other hand, are not Mandan- 
Hidatsa, and suggest some other eastern influence, 
possibly on an earlier time level. 

Elsewhere in the Yellowstone Valley, the pot- 
tery occurrences reported by Mulloy apparently 
involve, at least in part, wares whose relation- 
ships are with the Hagen site complex. Thus, he 
observes (Mulloy, 1945, p. 520) that ‘“‘a few frag- 
ments of pottery were discovered near the house 
sites at both Thirty Mile Mesa and Pompey’s 
Pillar Cuesta. They are gray to buff, with coarse 
paste and sand temper. In some the exterior is 
fluted, as though it might have been beaten with 
a thong-wrapped paddle. Pottery of this type oc- 
curs in small quantities on the surface in many 
places throughout this part of the Yellowstone 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


135 


Valley. It is similar to that of Pictograph Cave 
IV, an early historic occupation of Pictograph 
Cave, near Billings.” Historic materials, including 
gun flints and trade beads, were also found at 
Thirty Mile Mesa; but since all these finds were 
apparently surface materials, exact associations 
remain obscure. 

Comparisons.—The sherds from Ethridge, and 
those I have described from Cascade County, are 
closely similar to one another in all respects. Such 
variations as are apparent in paste, tempering, 
etc., do not appear to me to be of any great signifi- 
cance; possibly, if the Cascade County sample in- 
cluded as many fragments as are available from 
Ethridge, the similarity would be even closer. As 
it is, if the two samples were mixed, it would be 
impossible, I think, to separate them without re- 
course to identifying marks. Moreover, the tech- 
niques of surface treatment in these two lots are 
what I would consider predominantly prehistoric 
in character; a Plains archeologist, inspecting 
them without previous knowledge as to their 
provenience would, with little or no hesitation, at 
once suspect a late prehistoric horizon. 

The Ethridge-Cascade County sherds, how- 
ever, differ appreciably from Nelson’s Arrow Rock 
material. The former are generally thicker, seem 
to be better fired and more carefully made, show 
a greater frequency of cord-roughening and fabric- 
impressing, and a much lower frequency or even 
near-absence of simple stamping. These differ- 
ences, though not always easily verbalized, seem 
marked enough to set the two groups apart, even 
to a nonspecialist in Plains pottery types. To me, 
the Arrow Rock sherds, by contrast with the 
Ethridge-Cascade County materials, have a some- 
what “decadent” look that is reminiscent of his- 
torically late Plains wares elsewhere—perhaps 
something like the differences between Dismal 
River and Upper Republican wares in the central 
Great Plains. 

Having seen and handled none of the Hagen 
site pottery, I am at some disadvantage in at- 
tempting to compare it with the samples at hand. 
From Mulloy’s published description, however, 
it would appear that with respect to paste, tem- 
per, and perhaps other technological details, no 
striking differences exist between Hagen site 
pottery and that from the Arrow Rock cairns or 
from the Ethridge-Cascade County sites. As con- 
cerns decorative treatment and surface finish, 
however, there are far fewer resemblances among 
the various series. In its heavy emphasis on simple 


136 


stamping, the Arrow Rock material is much closer 
to Hagen site than to the Ethridge-Cascade 
County sherds. The Hagen site sherds seemingly 
are thinner than those from Ethridge. Incised 
decoration, single-cord impressions, dentate- 
stamping, fluting, and check-stamping are very 
rare or absent from the Ethridge-Cascade County 
series; and with the exception of fluting (simple 
stamping), they are also absent from Nelson’s 
Arrow Rock material. Wrapped-rod impressions 
occur, as Mulloy (1942, p. 37) has already noted, 
both at Hagen site and at Ethridge®; and so also, 
apparently, do punctates. More surprising, in 
light of present knowledge of Montana pottery, 
is the relative abundance of cord-roughening and 
fabric-impressing at Ethridge, both of which 
techniques are apparently absent from the much 
larger pottery series from the Hagen site. It will 
be interesting to see whether larger and more 
carefully controlled pottery samples from the 
Ethridge locality confirm the presence of these 
apparently distinguishing characteristics, and the 
possibly significant differences between pottery 
from the Yellowstone Valley and that from the 
Marias-Teton-Sun Rivers locality. 


DISCUSSION 


It is obvious, as I have already indicated, 
that the sherd samples under discussion here 
are an inadequate basis for any far-reaching 
conclusions or broad generalizations, al- 
though some speculation seems warranted. 
They do not suggest that the Montana 
region was ever one of intensive pottery- 
making; and it is perhaps significant that in 
the one stratified site reported to date as 
pottery-bearing, Pictograph Cave, sherds 
were found only in the uppermost deposits 
in association with white contact materials. 
If this suggested lateness and thinness of 
occupancy by pottery-making peoples is 
borne out by findings in other sections of 
the state, it will perhaps be possible in the 
not far distant future to allocate most of the 
ceramic remains to the immediate ancestors 
of one or another of the historic tribes of the 
area. 

3 Under date of May 7 , 1950, Mulloy informs me 
as follows concerning ‘hie previous examination of 
a sherd series from Ethridge: ‘‘The sample was 
small and, as I recall, the design elements were 
typical of the Hagen site and done in cord-w rapped 
stick. Any of the sherds I saw could have been 


easily lost i in a Hagen site sample. None had cord 
roughening or fabric impressions.” ’ 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


With regard to the materials reported from 
the Yellowstone Valley by Mulloy and Nel- 
son, the former has argued cautiously but 
cogently for a possible Crow authorship. 
Recency is certainly strongly suggested by 
the heavy emphasis on such a relatively late 
ceramic trait as fluting (simple stamping), 
and by the occasional association of the 
sherds with trade beads. It is possible that 
some of the sherd occurrences, such as those 
noted by Mulloy at pole and log structures 
in the middle Yellowstone Valley, pertain to 
hunting parties from tribes normally residing 
farther to the east or northeast, as for exam- 
ple, the Hidatsa. 

The Hagen site, of course, can not be so 
explained. It was obviously a village of some 
permanence and length of occupaney. The 
pottery complex has a great deal in common 
with that of the late pre-white contact Man- 
dan and Hidatsa, including a number of 
nearly identical traits; and interesting paral- 
lels may be found in other aspects of the 
material culture complex of the two local- 
ities. Linguistic evidence and tribal tradi- 
tions indicate that the Crow separated at a 
relatively late date from the Hidatsa; and 
it seems a not unreasonable view that the 
Hagen site perhaps represents one of their 
settlements on the move westward before 
they had sloughed off entirely their old semi- 
sedentary mode of village life and pottery- 
making and when they had not yet acquired 
the horse. If it can be shown ultimately that 
the Pryor Valley cairns, where pottery and 
glass beads occur together, are of Crow 
origin, the case for the Crow as pottery-using 
Indians will be considerably strengthened ; 
but such evidence is apparently not yet at 
hand. At the moment, about all that can be 
said is that pottery decoratively treated in a 
style highly characteristic of historic Plains 
Indian wares is widely distributed through- 
out portions of Montana which have been, 
since at least the middle of the 18th century, 
the range of the Crow Indians; and since the 
Crow traditionally reached this area from 
one in which their closest linguistic relatives 
shared a well-developed pottery tradition, 
the Crow would seem to be an excellent 
prospect in the search for the native potters 
who left the late prehistoric and/or proto- 
historic ceramic remains in eastern and 
southern Montana. 


Aprit 1951 WEDEL: 

But what of the sherd-bearing sites in the 
Marias-Teton-Sun Rivers area? Here there 
is no evidence of Crow penetration; and the 
sherds in the samples at hand seem to indi- 
cate something different from the late ware 
or wares to the south and southeast. What 
is suggested, moreover, is something quite 
unlike the crudely fashioned, flat-bottomed, 
subeylindrical pottery vessels reconstructed 
by Ewers (1945, p. 295) from historical ac- 
counts and tribal traditions of the Blackfoot, 
historic occupants of the region in question.’ 
These latter products are somehow reminis- 
cent of the early forms of metal vessels 
introduced by white traders, from which, 
indeed, they may even have been copied by 
Indians who probably knew nothing of the 
relatively better-made and technologically 
superior wares whose vestiges were to be 
found in some of the old campsites nearby. 
If the brass fragments at the Ethridge Site 
are actually associated with the sherds above 
described, it may be worth while to look 
further into the possibility of a Gros Ventre 
or Arapaho origin; but the feeling persists 
that we are perhaps dealing here with a tra- 
dition older than anything that might be 
associated with one or another of the historic 
tribes of northern Montana. 

I have at the moment no suggestions to 
offer concerning the affiliations of the Eth- 
ridge-Cascade County sherds, except to say 
that to me they look eastern rather than 
western, prehistoric rather than historic. 
They are not strongly reminiscent of a rather 
mixed lot of sherds which I obtained for the 
Missouri River Basin Survey in 1947 at site 
24RV1, on Big Muddy Creek southwest of 
Froid, in Roosevelt County, Montana, 
among which were noted thick, dentate- 
stamped sherds rather similar to certain 
Illinois Valley materials. Such traits as 
dentate-stamping, textile-impressing, cord- 
roughening, and the wrapped-rod technique 


* In his letter to me, dated May 7, 1950, Mulloy 
notes the occurrence of another, possibly somehow 
related, flat-bottomed potteryware found in camp- 
sites in western Montana, in the Wyoming Basin, 
and in the Great Basin, sometimes in sites which 
also contain pottery in the Mandan-Hidatsa tra- 
dition. He suggests that this may have been 
brought into the Montana-Wyoming region by the 
Shoshoni. There is, so far as I know, no published 
report concerning this curious complex and its 
significance. 


ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


137 


seem to me to argue for a possible eastern 
Woodland cultural or ethnic thrust into the 
northwestern Plains, perhaps from the Min- 
nesota region or elsewhere out of the western 
Great Lakes or upper Mississippi Valley 
area. 

In summary, I am inclined to think that 
native pottery in the Montana region may 
be older than would be implied in the 
assumption that it was brought in by early 
peoples directly related to one or another of 
the known historic inhabitants of the region; 
or alternatively, that some of these arrivals 
from the east, such as the Arapaho, perhaps 
came at an earlier time than is commonly 
supposed. As Mulloy, in his discussion of the 
Hagen site and its implications, has re- 
marked with reference to westward move- 
ments of peoples with a Mandan-Hidatsa 
culture tradition, although ‘‘the only west- 
ward movement of which we know is that 
of the Crow, it is entirely possible that a 
westward push such as the Crow movement 
may have taken place on several occasions 
in the prehistoric period. Small groups may 
have moved westward to live for a time and 
later to return or perhaps be absorbed by 
other groups.” It is well established that 
farther south, in western Kansas, Nebraska, 
and eastern Colorado, prehistoric horticul- 
turists and/or potters at one time or another 
pushed westward many hundreds of miles 
beyond the immediate valley of the Missouri 
and even into the High Plains proper. It 
seems possible that comparable thrusts west- 
ward by pottery-using Indians, perhaps dur- 
ing a Late Woodland culture period, may 
have taken place in Montana as well, though 
their stay in the region was evidently not as 
well marked as farther to the south. That 
full-scale horticultural economies accompa- 
nied pottery westward to the continental 
divide in Montana does not seem likely. The 
Hagen Site lies at or near the northwestern 
margin of lands climatically suitable for de- 
pendable maize gardening; the Marias- 
Teton-Sun Rivers locality is far beyond the 
area of known aboriginal maize-bean-squash 
horticulture. 

Determination of the exact character of 
the subsistence pattern and general material 
culture complex of pottery-bearing sites in 
northern Montana would doubtless assist in 


a 


138 


the orderly arranging of the later prehistoric 
records of human occupancy of the region. 
It is Just possible, too, that here, as elsewhere 
in the Great Plains where systematic arche- 
ology has been done, current concepts of 
local prehistory would be shown to be in 
need of some overhauling. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Ewers, Joun C. The case for Blackfoot pottery. 
Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 47 (2): 289-298. 1945. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 - 


Hormes, W. H. Aboriginal pottery of the eastern 
United States. 20th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol. 1903. 

Mutuoy, Wiuiram. The Hagen site, a prehistoric 
village on the lower Yellowstone. Univ. Montana 
Publ. Soe. Sei. no. 1. 1942. 

An Indian village in the Little Cayuse 
Mountains of Montana. Pap. Michigan Acad. 
Sci., Arts, and Letters 30: 511-521. 1945. 

Newson, N. C. Camping on ancient trails. Nat. 
Hist. 49 (5): 262-267. 1942. 

Contribution to Montana 

Amer. Antiq. 9 (2): 162-169. 1943. 


archeology. 


BOTANY.—A new species of Portulaca from Okinawa.! Eepert H. WALKER, U.S. 
National Museum, and Surnjun Tawapa, Ryukyu Forestry Agency, Okinawa. 


The junior author sent the annotated 
specimen, upon which this new species is 
based, along with miscellaneous collections 
from Okinawa Island, to the U. S. National 
Museum. He reports having first observed 
it 20 years ago at Zanpea-misaki (cape), 
Nakagami-gun, Okinawa Island, although 
the type is from near the village of Onna in 
Kunigami-gun, Okinawa Island. Search of 
the literature and comparison with avail- 
able material indicates it prebably represents 
an undescribed species. In view of the some- 
what confused status of the recent literature 
on Japanese botany, the presentation of a 
new species from this area is somewhat 
hazardous. 

According to the characterization of 
Portulaca in von Poellnitz’s monograph,” this 
species seems to belong in the subgenus 
Euportulaca Speg., section Rotundatae von 
Poelln., subsection Foveolatae von Poelln. 
In habit, it resembles the widespread species 
P. quadrifid.. L., differing most significantly 
jn the absence of axillary hairs. In this same 
respect, it differs from the two eastern 
Asiatic species, P. insularis Hosokawa? and 
P. boninensis Tuyama.’ which have been 
published since von Poellnitz’s monograph 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 

* PoELLNITZ, K. von. Versuch einer Monographie 
der Gattung Portulaca L. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 
37: 240-320. 1934. 

3Trans. Nat. Hist. 

1934. 
4 Bot. Mag. Tokyo 53: 6. 1939. 


Soc. Formosa 22: 229. 


was issued. Its perennial caespitose habit. 
small leaves, absence of axial hairs, so 
characteristic of many species, and its 
foveclate sculptured seeds are the outstand- 
ing characteristics of this species. 


Portulaca okinawensis Walker & Tawada, sp. nov- 


Planta perennis caespitosa 5-10 cm alta, cauli- 
bus herbaceis numerosis viridibus implicatis ra- 
mosis e caule brevi lignoso griseo orientibus; 
radicibus non visis; foliis ramulorum apices versus 
plerumque enatis, subsessilibus vel petiolatis, 
alternatis vel sub flore vel fructu solitario termi- 
nali verticillatis; laminis foliorum in vivo crassis 
carnosis in sicco dense granulosis elliptico-ovatis 
vel oblongis, 2-4 mm longis, basi obtusis, apice 
obtusis vel rotundatis, margine integris; foliis 
involucralibus non carinatis; pilis axillaribus nul- 
lis; floribus solitariis terminalibus circiter 1.6 
mm diametro, petalis 6, aurantio-flavis vel rubes- 
centibus, staminibus circiter 25, liberis, pistillo 
solitario vix inferiore, stylo gracili superne paullo 
dilatato, stigmate 4-partito; fructu globoso 2-3 
mm diametro nitido horizontaliter dehiscente, 
cupulae basalis seminiferae margine plus minusve 
incrassato, semine minuto atro nitido foveolis 
numerosis non profundis facie ornato. 

Nom Jap. Okinawa-matsube-botan (ex Ta- 
wada). 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1992668, collected October 2, 1949, by Shinjun 
Tawada (no. 2221) on an exposed rock at the 
seaside, 20 feet elevation, at Onna, Kunigami- 
gun, Okinawa Island, in the Ryukyu Islands. 


Aprit 1951 WALKER AND TAWADA: NEW SPECIES OF PORTULACA 139 


Fig. 1.—Portulaca okinawensis Walker & Tawada, sp. nov.: a, Flower; b, pistil; c, stamen; d, fruiting 
stem tip; e, e’, flowering stem tip showing reddish bases of bracts; f, flowering stem; g, vegetative stem, 
lower side; h, vegetative stem, upper side; 7, enlarged leaf, showing greenish intermittent net forming 
margins to translucent center. Drawing by Tawada. 


140 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 


ENTOMOLOGY .—New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina (Lepidoptera). J. F. 
GaTES CLARKE, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. 


The following species of Gelechiidae are 
described from material submitted by Fer- 
nando Bourquin and J. A. Pastrana, of 
Buenos Aires. Two species were reared by Mr. 
Bourquin and one by Mr. Pastrana from lar- 
vae they collected. Figures of the moths and 
life history notes will be published by Mr. 
Bourquin. 


Parastega hemisigna, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Alar expanse, 16 mm. 

Labial palpus, antenna, head, thorax, tegula, 
and ground color of forewing dark, shining pur- 
plish-fuscous. Brush of second segment gray and 
extreme apex of third segment creamy white. 
From costa of forewing, at one-fifth, a white bar 
extends to fold, then is continued along the fold 
to tornus as a narrow tawny line; extreme base 
of wing and an elongate patch beyond the white 
bar, black; costal edge, beyond white bar, and 
cilia, sooty. Hind wing gray; cilia fuscous. Fore- 
legs and midlegs dark purplish fuscous with nar- 
row white annulations on tarsi; hind leg sooty 
with narrow white annulations on tibia and 
tarsus. Abdomen shining blackish fuscous; anal 
tuft sordid ocherous-white with dull fuscous scales 
mixed ventrally. 

Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia—Unknown. 

Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 60941. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male 
dated, ‘VI. 50” and reared by Fernando Bour- 
quin. 

Similar in size to the Central American P. 
chionostigma (Walsingham) and P. niveisignella 
(Zeller) but distinguished from the former by the 
dark head and palpus and from the latter by the 
absence of the brownish scaling of forewing. 

T have figured (Figs. 2, 2a) the uncus, gnathos, 
and right harpe of the type of the genus (niveisig- 
nella) for comparison. 

Mr. Bourquin has two additional specimens of 
hemisigna and writes that ‘the male has two 
white stripes and the female one white stripe.” 


Aristotelia perplexa, n. sp. 
Figs. 3-3a, 4 


Alar expanse, 10-12 mm. 
Labial palpus whitish, pink tinged; second seg- 


ment with brownish-ocherous median and sub- 
apical bands; third segment with broad fuscous 
submedian and subapical bands. Antenna fus- 
cous narrowly banded with white except dorsally 
the bands not forming complete rings. Head, 
thorax, tegula, and base of forewing brownish 
ocherous. Ground color of forewing sordid whit- 
ish, the scales tipped with fuscous; basal patch 
broadly edged with dark brown outwardly; from 
basal third of costa a dark brown oblique band 
extends to slightly beyond fold and beyond this, 
in cell, is a small fuscous spot followed by another 
at the end of cell; outer half of wing overlaid 
with brownish ocherous; apical half of costa and 
termen edged with fuscous, the line broken by a 
series of pale carmine spots; cilia light brownish 
ocherous with subterminal and subbasal fuscous 
bands and base pale carmine; underside fuscous. 
Hindwing fuscous; cilia slightly paler; from costa 
of male extends a thick brownish-ocherous hair- 
pencil. Legs shining ocherous-white variously 
overlaid and banded with fuscous; foretibia and 
midtibia and tarsi and posterior tibia alternately 
banded with pale carmine. Abdomen fuscous 
above and ocherous-white beneath. 

Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia—Genital plate and ostium 
as figured; signum absent. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 60942. 

Type locality —Tigre, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
five male and two female paratypes, all from the 
same locality. The dates on the type series are 
from March to April 1939. Paratypes in U. S. 
National Museum and Mr. Bourquin’s collection, 
Buenos Aires. 

This species is similar to A. cynthia Meyrick 
and possesses the hair-pencil from costa of hind 
wing of male; but cynthia lacks the carmine 
coloring of perplexa. The cucullus of cynthia is 
greatly elongated and sharply curved ventrad, 
while that of perplexa is short and dilated. 


_Aristotelia parephoria, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-5a, 6-6a 


Alar expanse, 11-14 mm. 

Labial palpus sordid white; second segment: 
with three bands and apex light brown; third 
segment with basal and median bands light brown 
and subapical annulation blackish fuscous. Head 


Aprit 1951 CLARKE: NEW SPECIES OF GELECHIIDAE 


fs a 

Fies. 1-6a.—1, Parastega hemisigna, n. sp.: Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed. 
2-2a, Parastega niveisignella( Zeller) : 2, Lateral aspect of uncusand gnathos; 2a, right harpe. 8-8a, Aris- 
totelia perplexa, n. sp.: 3, Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed; 3a, aedeagus. 


4, 
Arsitotelia perplexa, n. sp.: Detail of genital plate and ostium. 5-5a, Aristotelia parephoria, n. sp.: 5, 
Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed; 5a, aedeagus. 6-6a, Aristolelia parephoria, n. 
sp.:6, Detail of genital plate and ostium; 6a, bursa copulatrix and signum. 


141 


142 


pale brownish ocherous with a dorsal fuscous 
stripe. Thorax, tegula, and ground color of fore- 
wing ocherous-white; thorax and tegula strongly 
suffused with fuscous anteriorly; dorsal half and 
apex of forewing overlaid with buff; from base of 
costa, and from costa at one-third, blackish- 
fuscous bands extend to fold, the latter band, 
outwardly curved, joins narrowly a fuscous shade 
at outer third of costa; apex and tornus each 
with a small fuscous shade extended into the 
otherwise buff cilia; underside of forewing black- 
ish fuscous. Hind wing and cilia fuscous; costal 
third of underside of hind wing blackish fuscous, 
remainder ocherous-white. Legs shining ocherous- 
white; tibiae and tarsi banded with blackish 
fuscous, abdomen grayish above, ocherous-white 
beneath. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia.—Genital plate, ostium, and 
signum as figured. 

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 60943. 

Type locality —Tucuman, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
two male and four female paratypes, all from the 
type locality. The dates are “VIII, 1939,” and 
the specimens were collected by J. A. Pastrana. 
S. National Museum and Mr. 
Pastrana’s collection, Buenos Aires. 


Paratypes in U. 


A. parephoria appears to be nearest to A. ephoria 
Meyrick but differs from that species by the 
long terminal segment of palpus and the three 
dark bands on second segment. 


MALACOLOGY .—Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod Glossus.! Davip Nicou, 


U.S. National Museum. 


The study on Glossus is the fourth of a 
series on relict pelecypod genera. Lamy 
(1920, pp. 290-296) has done the most recent 
thorough work on the genus. 

Glossus is represented by one species living 
in western European seas and the Mediter- 
ranean. The Indo-Pacific species allocated 
to Mevocardia have entirely different geo- 
graphical distributions and certainly should 
be considered as a distinct genus on the 
basis of shell morphology. The exact relation- 
ship between Glossus and Mevtocardia has 
never been shown, although Dall (1900, pp. 
1065, 1066) claimed that the fossil and living 
species of the two groups are difficult to 
separate. Dall, Bartsch, and Rehder (1938, 
p. 121) consider Glossus and Meiocardia as 
distinct genera. 

The torsion of the beaks has so greatly 
modified the hinge of the glossids that it is 
difficult to allocate the family to any higher 
taxonomic category, and it is not certain 
that any of the Mesozoic species of glossoid- 
form pelecypods can be placed in the genus 
Glossus. (See Stoliczka, 1871, p. 188.) Des- 
pite the great amount of torsion in Glossus, 
however, the genus bears much superficial 
resemblance to Arctica. This resemblance 
would be even more striking if the hinge of 
Arctica were twisted to the same degree that 
it is in Glossus. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


From the Paleocene through the Miocene, 
the genus Glossus has apparently been con- 
fined to temperate seas in the northern hemi- 
sphere except for the northern Pacific region. 
From the Pliocene to the Recent, the genus 
has been confined to western Europe and the 
Mediterranean Sea. 


Family Guossipak Stoliczka, 1871 
Genus Glossus Poli, 1795 


Cardium Linné, 1758 (in part). 

Chama Linné, 1764 (in part). 

Chama Linné, 1767 (in part). 

Cardita Bruguiére, 1792 (in part). 
Glossoderma Poli, 1795. 

Tsocardia Lamarck, 1799. 

Buccardium Megerle von Mihlfeld, 1811. 
Bucardia Schumacher, 1817. 
Tychocardia Romer, 1869. 


Genotype: (Monotypy) Glossus rubtcundus 
Poli, 1795 = Chama cor Linné, 1767 = Cardiwm 
humanum Linné, 1758. 

There appears to be no nomenclatorial reason 
why Poli’s names can not be used despite the fact 
that he employed two generic names, one for the 
soft parts of the mollusk and the other for the 
shell. The shell name always ends in “derma,” 
and Cerastoderma has been used consistently for 
a genus of cardiids. Glossus and Glossoderma are 
absolute synonyms, but Glossus is to be preferred 
on the basis of page priority. Glossus Poli, 1795, 
is clearly prior to Isocardia Lamarck, 1799, and 
on that basis must be employed for Cardiwm 
humanum Linné. 


Aprit 1951 NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF GLOSSUS 143 


Glossus humanus (Linné), 1758 1792. Cardita cor (Linné), Bruguiére, Encye. 
Meth., Nat. Hist. Vers, 1: 403, 404; 1797, 
Figs. 2-5 Cardita, pt. 19, no. 18: pl. 232, figs. la-d. 
1795. Glossus rubicundus Poli, Test. utr. Siciliae 2: 
1758. Cardium humanum Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 10: 114, 253, pl. 15, figs. 30, 34, 35, 36; pl. 23, 
682. figs. 1, 2. 

1764. Chama cordiformis Linné, Mus. Lud.UIl. Reg.: 1795. Gee bderna rubicundus Poli, Test. utr. 
516. Siciliae 2: 253. 

1767. Chama cor Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 12,1 (pt. 1795. Glossoderma cor (Linné), Poli, Test. utr. 
2) ralloie Siciliae 2: 259. 


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Fic. 1.—Distribution of living specimens of Glossus humanus (Linné): W, Locality data based on 
U.S. National Museum specimens; V, locality data based on specimens in other museums and on 
a p ’ ) . 
published records. 


144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 
1798. ae ou ae ritum Roding, Mus. Bolt.: rior adductor muscle scar deeper and_ better 
, no. J. a , yar 
ITOOMT OLEH CoR (LE nG) 2 Da ON Coe marked but smaller than posterior adductor mus- 
Hist. Nat. Paris 1: 86. cle sear 
1801. Isocardia globosa Lamarck, Syst. animaux Measurements in mm.—Only specimens with 
sans vert., etc., 1: 118. both valves were measured: 
1811. Buccardium commune Megerle von Mihlfeld, 
Mag. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin 5 (1), art. \ Convexity 
2: 52. U.S.N.M. no. Length Height (both values) 
1815. Glossus cor (Linné), Oken, Lehr. Nat., Teil 2S WOE 98.3 83.2 
3. Zool.: 235. 201292 100.8 95.4 88.4 
z 5 , ie 6 131658 93.0 89.2 Utetl 
1817. Bucardia communis (Megerle von Mihlfeld), 304792 93.7 74.7 65.5 
Schumacher, Hssai nouv. syst., ete.: 144, 201294 81.7 79.6 59.0 
pl. 13, figs. 2a, b. 201299 81.2 80.0 60.0 
1845. Isocardia hibernica Reeve, Conch. Icon. 2, 186122 79.3 74.7 69.5 
: Tsocardia: pl. 1, sp. 4. 201295 75.1 75.6 59.1 
1853. Cardita humana (Linné), Mérch, Cat. Conch. 201302 70.3 64.1 59.7 
Yoldi 2: 38. 304782 69.6 65.1 59.0 
1855. Isocardia cor var. hibernica Reeve, Hanley, vee GiBS Wao DoS 
5 6 9 ri 201298a 60.4 59.6 53.2 
Ipsa Linnaei Conchylia: 84. 201296 52.6 55.8 iOS 
1858. Bucardiw cor (Linné), H. and A. Adams, Gen. 201300 45.9 48.8 36.2 
Rec. Moll. 2: 461, pl. 112, figs. 5a, b. 201294a 45.6 48.2 35.7 
1869. Isocardia (T'ychocardia) cor (Linné), Romer, 131658a 45.6 45.6 38.6 
in Martini und Chemnitz, Conch.-Cab., 201296a 44.1 48.0 34.4 
ed. 2,10 (2), Cardiacea: 5-7, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. 201297 38.9 43.0 29.0 
1900. Isocardia humana (Linné), Dall, Tert. fauna 201297a 32.8 35.0 24.3 
Florida 3 (pt. 5): 1064. 201337 26.8 27.0 20.5 
1903. Isocardia cor var. valentiana Pallary, Ann. 


Mus. Hist. Nat. Marseille, Zool., 8, mém. 
ile Wes; jolly sakes, IG}. 

Glossus humanus (Linné), van Regteren Al- 
tena, Bijdrage tot de kennis der fossiele, 
subfossiele en Recente Mollusken, etc.: 
WO swe 


1937. 


Description.—Shell porcellaneous, thin, exterior 
ornamented only by growth lines; small speci- 
mens often have two small folds separated by in- 
cised lines extending from the ligament obliquely 
downward toward the posteroventral margin; a 
poorly defined, broad depressed area in front of 
beaks, better defined in small specimens and often 
delimited by two incised lines; periostracum dark 
reddish brown to black on large specimens, lighter 
on small specimens, attaining a light greenish 
yellow on smallest specimens; periostracum 
nearly smooth in appearance on large speci- 
mens; on small ones fine, closely spaced, radiat- 
ing lines composed of darker-colored ridges of 
periostracum; valves without gape, equivalve; 
interior ventral margin smooth; beaks spirally 
enrolled and strongly prosogyrate, umbones 
swollen; hgament external, weak, parivincular, 
split into two parts anteriorly and dragged under 


spirally enrolled beaks, opisthodetic; hinge teeth 
sehen 3a, 1, 3b, PI 
ceyrenoid, hinge formula 5,55, ap, prp all teeth lam- 


inar and nearly horizontal, 2a and 2b in left valve 
almost completely fused, 1 and 3b in right valve 


somewhat fused; pallial line integripalliate, ante- 


One trend is quite apparent from the measure- 
ments: small shells are longer than they are high, 
whereas large shells are higher than they are long. 
The ratio of convexity to height was computed. 
All seven shells from the Mediterranean Sea had 
ratios ranging from 0.90 to 0.84. The ratios of 12 
shells from the British Isles ranged from 0.80 to 
0.72 except for one large shell from Dublin Bay 
which had a ratio of convexity to height of 0.88. 
Reeve (1845, vol. 2, p. 2, Isocardia) claimed that 
the specimens from Ireland were less globose 
than those from the Mediterranean Sea. On the 
basis of this difference and some other minor 
features, he proposed the new species name 
hibernica for the Irish specimens. To my knowl- 
edge no other conchologist has considered hiber- 
nica a distinct species, but Reeve’s contention 
that the Mediterranean specimens are more glo- 
bose is borne out by the few specimens I have 
measured. 

Number of specomens.—There are 32 specimens 
of Glossus humanus in the collection of the 
United States National Museum. 

Locality data —The following localities are rep- 
resented by specimens in the National Museum: 
Zara, Yugoslavia; Tunis; Cette, France; Algiers; 
Cape de Gata, Spain; Cape Sagres, Portugal; 
Falmouth, England; Plymouth, England; Dublin 
Bay; Isle of Man; Oban, Scotland; Hebrides; 
Shetland Islands. 


Aprit 1951 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY 
OF GLOSSUS HUMANUS (LINNE) 


This study is encumbered by two diffi- 
culties. Glossus humanus is not a common 
species, except for a few scattered localities, 
and observations on its habitat are meager. 
The more serious difficulty results from an 
error by J. Gwyn Jeffrys, who mistook 
species of Kelliella for the young of Glossus. 
Some of the Jeffreys’ material collected on 
the Porcupine and Valorous expeditions is in 
the National Museum collection. Specimens 
identified as “‘Isocardia cor” by Jeffreys are 
not that species, a point upheld by Sars and 
much later by other conchologists. 

The exact northern limit of distribution of 
Glossus is worthy of much additional investi- 
gation. Only one living specimen of Glossus 
humanus has been found off the southern 
coast of Iceland thus far (Madsen, 1949, p. 


NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF GLOSSUS 


145 


49), although the molluscan fauna of the 
island has been extensively collected and 
studied. The genus has not been reported 
from the Faroes. The report of Glossus from 
the Lofoten Islands off the coast of Norway 
was based on a misidentification by Jeffreys. 
The genus is rare from Trondhjem Fjord 
southward and eastward into the Kattegat. 
Glossus is fairly common in certain places 
along the coasts of the British Isles and is 
also found in the Shetlands. It has been re- 
ported all along the coasts of France, Portu- 
gal, and Spain. In the Mediterranean, Glossus 
is frequently found as far east as the Adriatic 
Sea. The fact that it has not been found east of 
there may be due to lack of careful collecting. 
It apparently is not present on the west coast 
of Africa, even near the entrance to the 
Mediterranean Sea. Jeffreys has reported 
Glossus from the Azores, but this report is 


Fras. 2-5.—Glossus humanus (Linné): 2, Interior of left valve, X 1; 3, interior of right valve, X 1; 
4, exterior of right valve, X 1; 5, enlarged portion of exterior surface of shell showing fine radial ridges of 
periostracum, X 6. (All figures are of a young specimen from Falmouth, England; U.S.N.M. no. 201800.) 


146 JOURNAL OF THE 
thought to be based on a misidentification. 
Further collecting will no doubt more accur- 
ately delimit the distribution of the genus. 
Additional ecological data are greatly 
needed on Glossus humanus. The species 
apparently is found on sand, sandy-mud, or 
mud bottoms. It has been thought by some 
to have a wide bathymetric range, but this 
idea is now believed to be incorrect. Jeffreys 
has reported Glossus from more than 2,000 
meters of water, but the specimens found at 
that depth are probably all Kelliella. Glossus 
apparently is found in depths ranging from 
about 5 to 150 meters. The probable temper- 
ature of the bottom where the genus thrives 
ranges from 8° to 15°C. 
Acknowledgments.—The following persons 
gave me data on geographical distribution 
of specimens of Glossus: William J. Clench, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har- 
vard College; Leo G. Hertlein, California 


WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 


Academy of Sciences; A. Myra Keen, Stan- 
ford University. I am greatly indebted to 
them for their assistance. 


REFERENCES 


Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of 
Florida, etc. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 3 
(pt. 5): 949-1218, pls. 36-47. 1900. 

Datt, W. H., Bartscu, P., and RenprErR, H. A. A 
manual of the Recent and fossil marine pelecy- 
pod mollusks of the Hawaiian Islands. Bernice 
P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 153: 233 pp., 28 figs., 58 
pls., 1938. 

Lamy, E., Révision des Cypricardiacea et des Iso- 
cardiacea vivants du Muséum d’ Histoire Natu- 
relle de Paris. Journ. Conchyl. 64 (4) : 259-307. 
1920. 

Mapsen, F. J. The zoology of Iceland 4 (pt. 63, 
Marine Bivalvia): 116 pp., 12 figs. 1949. 

REEVE, L. A. Conchologia iconica 2, Isocardia: 2 
pp., l pl., 1845. 

SroxiczKA, F. Cretaceous fauna of southern India 3, 
The Pelecypoda, etc. Palaeontologica Indica 
(Geological Survey of India memoirs) : 537 pp., 
50 pls. 1871. 


MALACOLOGY.—More new urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. Patt Bartscu, 


U.S. National Museum. 


To the indefatigable efforts and the stimu- 
lating influence that Miss Marie Bourgeois, 
of Mixcoac, exerted upon her friends to help 
make known the molluscan fauna of Mexico, 
the U. S. National Museum is indebted for 
the following new species of urocoptid land 
snails transmitted to us for report. 


Coelostemma anconai, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 3 


Shell cylindroconic, pale horn-colored when 
living, dead shells white. The nucleus consists of 
about two turns, which are somewhat inflated and 
strongly rounded and form a slightly bulbous 
apex. The nuclear turns are finely granulose. The 
first seven postnuclear whorls increase gradually 
in width, rendering this part of the shell elongate- 
conic. Beginning with the eighth turn the shell 
becomes cylindric in form, contracting slightly 
on the last three whorls. The postnuclear whorls 
are slightly rounded and separated by a moder- 
ately impressed suture. They are marked by 
decidedly retractively curved axial riblets, which 
are slightly less strongly developed on the eylin- 
dric portion of the shell than on the two ends. 
Of these riblets about 40 are present on the second 
postnuclear turn, 80 on the tenth, and 62 on the 


penultimate whorl. On the last turn behind the 
peristome the riblets become; fine, hairlike, and 
crowded. The spaces separating the riblets aver- 
age about double the width of the ribs. The last 
turn is solute for about one-fifth of a turn, the 
solute portion bearing the rib sculpture of the 
rest of this portion of the shell. The aperture is 
subcircular and is somewhat sinuous on the parie- 
tal wall where the peristome is a little less ex- 
panded than on the rest of the aperture where it 
widens in a gentle curve. The columella is hollow, 
broad, about one-third the width of the shell, 
and shows fine axial markings; it gradually nar- 
rows in the last two turns. 

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 595018, has 19 
whorls and measures: Length 26 mm; diameter 
of the cylindric portion 6 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 
595019 comprises the paratype, of which we have 
figured the columella and some fragments. 

We are naming the species for Prof. I. Ancona, 
who collected the specimens at Ixcatiopan, 
Guerrero, Mexico. 

Of the known species of Coelostemma this 
species resembles most nearly C. igualaensis 
Bartsch, fro.i Iguala, Guerrera, Mexico, from 
which it is easily distinguished by its smaller 
size, more cylindric outline, narrower shell, and 
stronger ribbing. 


Aprit 1951 


Holospira wilmoti, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 


Shell cylindroconic, white with the interior of 
the aperture pale chestnut-brown. The nucleus 
consists of about 23 strongly rounded whorls 
that form a mucronate apex. The first four post- 
nuclear whorls increase rapidly in width, while 
the succeeding turns are cylindric, contracting 
again toward the base. The postnuclear whorls 
are flattened and separated by a slightly im- 
pressed suture. On the conic portion feeble de- 
cidedly retractively curved axial riblets are in- 
dicated, while on the cylindric portion the axial 
markings are reduced to mere lines of growth. 
The last whorl and a little of the penultimate 
turn bear distantly spaced somewhat sinuous 
axial ribs, which extend undiminished over the 
slightly angulated periphery and the base into the 
umbilical chink. These ribs are about one-third 
as wide as the spaces that separate them. The 
last whorl is solute for about one-eighth of a 
turn. Aperture obliquely pear-shaped; peristome 
broadly flatly expanded and thickened. Colu- 
mella hollow, about one-fourth the diameter of 
the whorls, bearing a feeble obsolete fold in the 
cylindric portion of the shell which expands into 
a thin slightly curved blade in the penultimate 
whorl, where it extends over three-fifths of the 
width of the chamber bending slightly upward 
toward the parietal fold. In the last turn the colu- 
mellar fold becomes much. reduced and _ thick- 
ened, being scarcely noticeable in the aperture. 
The parietal fold is well developed and is con- 
fined to the penultimate turn. The basal fold in 
the same turn is poorly developed, while the 
labial fold is about one-half as strong as the 
parietal fold. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 595020, was collected 
by George Wilmot on Cerro del Fraile, near 
Villa Garcia, Nuevo Ledén, Mexico. It has 14 
whorls and measures: Length 20 mm; diameter 
of cylindric portion 7 mm. 

This species most nearly resembles H. orcutti 
Bartsch, which Orcutt collected on a limestone 


BARTSCH: NEW UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS 


147 


paredon in Coahuila, Mexico. Its much smaller 
size and more cylindric form readily distinguish it. 
We take pleasure in naming it for its dis- 


coverer. 


Fras. 1-3.—1, 3, Coelostemma anconat, n. sp.; 
2, Holospira wilmoti. n. sp. 


148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


4447H MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS Representative on Council of A.A.A.S.: F. M. 


The 444th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on February 12, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the President, 
NarHan R. Smiru. Also present were: W. Ram- 
BERG, H. S. Rappieyn, J. A. STEVENSON, C. 
Drecuster, A. T. McPHrerson, W. R. WEDEL, 
J. J. Fanny, E. H. Watker, W. A. Dayton, 
R. 8. Diu, L. A. Spinpuer, A. M. Grirrin, 
F. M. Deranporr, and, by invitation, MARGARET 
Pirtman, G. P. Watton, and L. E. Yocum. 

The President announced the following ap- 
pointments: 


Appointed Members of Executive Committee: 
W. Ramberg, H. S. Rappleye, J. A. Stevenson, 
and F. M. Defandorf. 

Board of Editors of the Journal: Charles Drech- 
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Kracek. T. P. Thayer (Geology) was appointed 
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Committee on Membership: L. A. Spindler 
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Setzler. 

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The Secretary reported a meeting of the Exe- 
cutive Committee at 6:30 p.m., February 12, 
1951, at the Cosmos Club with the following 
members in attendance: N. R. Smrra, W. Ram- 
BERG, H. 8. Rappieyn, J. A. STEVENSON, and 
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presented by the Treasurer for 1951 was dis- 
cussed in some detail and approved for sub- 
mission to the Board of Managers. 

The following budget was presented to the 
Board, discussed by the Treasurer, and adopted 
by the Board without change: 


RECEIPTS 
Estimated 1951 

1950 1951 Budget 

Dues..... ; oo $3985.00 $4200.00 

Journal Subscriptions... . 1339.50 1600.00 

Interest & Dividends 1521.50 1950.00 

Sales)... .. 93.43 100.00 

$6939.43 $7850.00 

DISBURSEMENTS 

Journal & Journal Office ........ $6435.74 $6500.00 $6500.00 
Secretary's office 481.26 550.00 550.00 
Treasurer’s office. . oe 304.59 300.00 300.00 
S.M. &C. of Publications....... 30.67 50.00 50.00 
Meetings Committee 244.30 500.00 500.00 
Membership Committee.......... 1.50 20.00 20.00 
Science Fair.......... 100.00 100.00 100.00 
Sciences Calendar. . . 10.00 50.00 50.00 
Archivistie ta: cero aoe ee — 75.00 75.00 
$7608.06 $8145.00 $8145.00 


Hstimated) Deficiten- ake tree eee eee $ 295.00 


A letter from J. A. Stevenson was read in 
which he submitted his resignation as an Elected 
Member of the Board of Managers because he 
is at present Archivist of the Academy. The 
Board accepted the resignation and in Mr. Ste- 
venson’s place appointed Milton Harris. 

The Board appointed C. F. W. Muesebeck to 
fill the vacancy created by the resignation of H. 
P. Barss as an Elected Member of the Board of 
Managers. 

The meeting adjourned at 8:55 P.M. 

F. M. Drranporr, Secretary 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[2 ROS EUG D so ele Gig Oo ER OS CTEO BOD aE ee NatHan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station 
PEARESTALENUL-CLECES ater Fae She Oe WattTEeR RAaMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
SCGIRATPO) SED CT Here F. M. Dreranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
RECUSUN ODM A ce kena ke Howarp 8. Rappers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
ARTO Sea oe cle oR AS AND eer eRe Oe JouHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Resper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brolozicalusociety, of Washinetone sce asso dans jess ee oe 
Chemical Society of Washington........... eee tose a yv rate Scns JosprH J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FREDERICK W. Poos 
National Geographic Society...... 20.0... 0.060. c eee eee ee ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington......................0...005- Leason H. Apams 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 
ColumbrayElistoricaliSocletyaee. 20 esses eee ees GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Botanicals socictyjomWwashingtonuenne le 44s eee niece ean E. H. WALKER 
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Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
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Helminthological Society ofpWashington, eee eee one eae L. A. SPINDLER 
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Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Herpert G. DorsEy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. . 
Elected Members of the Board of M anagers: 


PIR ATINT UTS OD Bee ene vei ses ose eee: Nee ale Whtevejesss aeniaeies W. F. Fosuaa, C. L. Gazin 
pRoManT ary) MOS8E jae Ss crepes ee a Seer ae es C. F. W. Munszesecs*, A. T. McPHERson 
I® dipiatneney7? 3G Ue es Senne een eee Sara E. Branuam, Mitton Harris* 
GOR OMOMUUGNAGETS ye crcc yes corinne esos: All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Roaianopuautorsiand Assocrate HQUOTs, 22.52.42. +0250 .0 45522. 0ge. seas [See front cover] 


Executive Commitiee....N. R. SmrrH (chairman), WALTER RamBERG, H. S. RAPPLEYE, 
. A. Stevenson, F. M. Deranporr 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SprInpLER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. E. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jonzs, DoroTuy NICKERSON, F. A. SMITH, Hetnz SPECHT, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Commiitee on M. eetings dekh in cba Marcarer Prirrman (chairman), NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. CuHapuine, D. J. Davis, F. B. ScHEETz, H. W. Weus 

Committee on u onographs: 


Ronanwary G52. esa. jee sean. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paut H. OnHSER 
Ovary al OD Smee sae ee ice remit beiacic, oeeyois J aicieee ss a/Sees R. W. Imuay, P. W. OMAN 

IPG) dicot rareie WDaY Ges ayecta 6 6 orl etn cara rcnpe nen ne one en S. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GRORGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FABER, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SWALLEN 

For the Engineering Sciences......... 185 (So Davy, (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Watton (chairman), F. 8S. BRacKErt, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMILien 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BARNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyir, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSON 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Researched em ea L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suuiivan, H. L. WaitTeMoRE 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


Ate) demain ICG oo wa po aubeskaesduoonote J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

ROR anwaryl9 OS ners. cess ccs a tion teersdan be mae. Ws Atouete W. A. Dayton, N. R. Suita 

PROMI Ua ae lO OA ey) eh ce, ae ca vugce, acoso afuaucare H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Rupny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Le Uaminens? IOEY, Jo ooeachcacenseocnun M. A. Mason cree A. T. McPHERSON 

MOT ANUAL Ye OOSt cena aceon s seee cl tuectcs a eosvetais A. H . CLARK, F. L. Mounier 

POR ANU aT yO D4 wets Rance ey ey yens sake souste a aieitersiarsiavens J.M. CALDWELL, W. ee Scumitr 
JOST Op Coonocd) OF Bo Fla Als Sonooc6000 ssg04sbnb0090Ks00Gd00RE F. M. Serzur 
Committee of Auditors......J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. i YOUDEN 


Committee of Tellers. . _W. G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Lovrsn M. RussELu 
* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Maruematics.—The theory of group representations. Francis E. 
JOHNSTON - 6 y:d56 dale Wloscis eeidlecs 6s oe yanie wt alt we ae ly 
MatTHEMATICS.—On an equation of Neményi and Truesdell. D. S. 
MaITRINOVITOH. (sg. ccc ests gh age ene ones se ee 129 


ARcCHEOLOGY.—Notes on aboriginal pottery from Montana. Waupo R. 
Botany.—A new species of Portulaca from Okinawa. Eeprert H. 
WALKER and SHINJUN LAWADA] (e550. 522 4 0-0 138 


EntTomMoLocy.—New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina (Lepidoptera). 
J. FF. Gawns @raRKB.... $0.0066 00. clon oe ole, ie os | 140 


Matacotoay.—Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod Glossus. 
Davaip NICOL:.;...Aglat aiccei 2 Bodies Bee ac hs too Oe 142 


Matacotocy.—More new urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. Pau 
BARTSCH (iy Romie oie ei ghs ence: a oenyelthe mie oan 146 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vot. 41 May 1951 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


May 1951 


No. 


i) 


PHYSICS.—The limitations of the principle of superposition: II. Pauu R. Heyu, 


Washington, D. C. 


The first paper on this subject was pub- 
lished in this JouRNAL 40: 345, 1950, wherein 
the discussion was confined to the case of 
the resultant of components with equal fre- 
quencies. The present paper discusses the 
case where the frequencies are different. Here 
we find some rather unexpected results, all 
of which originate in one fundamental propo- 
sition—that with components of different 
frequencies the resultant does not obey 
Hooke’s law. 

Consider first the case of equal frequencies: 


A sin nt + B sin n(t — 6) 
—n*[A sin nt + B sin n(t — 6)] 


y 
d*y/dt? 


Assuming a vibrating element of unit mass, 
we see that the force acting on the element 
is proportional to the displacement, obeying 
Hooke’s law. 

With components of different frequencies, 


A sin nt + B sin m(t — 6) 
—An? sin nt — Bm? sin m(t — @), 


Ye= 
*y/d? = 
where the force acting is not proportional to 
the displacement but is a variable function 
of the displacement. To see what results this 
brings we shall consider a very simple case: 


sin ¢ Yo = sin 2¢ 
= sin¢ + sin 2t 


Yi 
Resultant 


y (1) 

Table 1 gives numerical values of dis- 
placement, force acting and ratio of force 
to displacement for a number of points in 
the first half cycle. 

The ratios at t = 0° and ¢ = 180° are of 
an indeterminate form which, when evalu- 
ated, give the limits to which the ratios ap- 
proach at the neighboring points. 

It will be seen that the curve has a point 
of inflexion when ¢ = 97° 10/ 50”. Here the 
force acting is zero, while the displacement 


149 


is not zero. A case of opposite kind is found 
when ¢ = 120°. Here the curve crosses the 
axis and the displacement is zero, but the 
force is not zero. 

A more readily understandable case of this 
latter kind is found if we consider a flexible 
string of length z, fixed at both ends and 
vibrating in its first and third harmonies 
(see Fig. 1). Here we have, at maximum dis- 
placement, y = sin x + sin 3x, with the 
middle point of the string on the axis of x. 
At this moment let the points B and C be 
held stationary. The middle point A will 
then snap upward and finally come to rest 
on the straight line between B and C, show- 
ing that it had a force acting on it when its 
displacement was zero. 


Another unexpected result appears also in 
this table. The displacement has a maximum 
when ¢ = 53° 37’ 29”, but the greatest force 
occurs at t = 47° 25’ 33”. A similar result is 
found for the minimum value of y at ¢ 
147° 27’ 37”, with the maximum force at 
t ISA Sey WM 

Let us now consider the question of energy. 
The components y; = sin ¢ and ys = sin 2 
have respectively total energies of 5 and 2, 
whose sum is 2.5. What will be the energy of 
their resultant? 


Kinetic energy = 3(dy/dt)? 


4(cos t + 2 cos 2¢)? 


1 cos? ¢ + 2 cos? 2¢ + 2 cos ¢ cos 2é...(2) 


MAY 2 9 1951 


150 


The first two terms of (2) represent the 
kinetic energies of the original components 
yi and yo. The third term is an excess (or 
deficiency) of kinetic energy which is intro- 
duced by adding amplitudes, since the square 
of a binomial may be greater or less than 
the sum of the squares of its two terms. If 
t = 7/4 or 7/2 there will be no excess or 
deficiency, and only in such cases will super- 
position be valid. 

To determine potential energy we must 
know the force necessary to balance the 
force of restitution. d*y/d?? = —sint — 4 
sin 2¢ = —F, the force of restitution, nega- 
tive when displacement is positive. Therefore 
F will be the force we need to determine po- 
tential energy. Both F and y are functions 
of t. 


Yy t 
Potential energy = [ F dy = [ F dy/dt dt 
0 0 


t 
= [ (sin t + 4 sin 2¢)(cos ¢t + 2 cos 2¢) dt 
0 


This splits up into four integrals. 


t 
[sin te0s ae = § sine een a an nd ne ee (3) 
0 
t 
2f sin ¢ cos 2t dt = cos t — 4. cos 3t — 3 ... (4) 
0 
t 
| sin 2tcos tdt = — % cos 3t —2cost+3.. (5) 
0 


t 
8 i Sind 7; COS A Cs = YF Sie WE Os soacnccaccce s (6) 
0 


Here we see that with more than two com- 
ponents the mathematical labor rapidly 
mounts up. With two components we have 
four integrals to handle; and with ten com- 
ponents we would have a hundred integrals. 
But, as was mentioned in the first paper on 
this subject, there are a number of cases of 
practical importance where the traditional 
addition of amplitudes gives correct results. 

The sum of these four integrals will be the 
potential energy of the vibrating element at 
displacement y. Of these four, (3) and (6) will 
be the potential energies of the components 
yi, and yo. The sum of (4) and (5) will be the 
excess (or deficiency) of potential energy in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


the resultant. Adding the kinetic energy (2) 
to the sum of these four integrals we have 


Total energy = 4 + 2 + 2 cost cos 2t — cost 


— cos 3¢ + 2, 


in which the trigonometric terms cancel out 
after a little reduction,! and we have 


Total energy = } + 2 + 2 = component energies 
+ 2 units excess (7) 


which is constant for all values of f. 

This violation of the conservation of en- 
ergy can be avoided by applying modifying 
factors to the original components y, and 
y2 before adding their amplitudes. Let these 
factors be M, and M,. The modified com- 
ponents will be 


Y, = Misint and ys = M, sin 2, and their resultant 
y = M, sin t + Mz sin 2t (8) 


Working with (8) as we did with the re- 
sultant of the original, unmodified compo- 
nents, we obtain 


Total energy of (8) = $M, + 2M?,+ 2M, Me (9) 


TABLE 1 
t y d?y/dt? Ratio 
0° 0 0 0/0 = —3.00 
20° 0.98481 —2.91318 —2.95 
40° 1.62670 —4.58203 —2.81 
47° 25’ 33” 1.73280 —4.72200 —2.73 
50° 1.75085 —4.70528 —2.69 
58°'3774 297 1.76014 —4.62520 —2.53 
60° 1.73206 —4.33)15 —2.48 
90° 1 —1 —1.00 
97° 10’ 50” 0.74412 0 0 
100° 0.64279 0.38327 0.60 
110° 0.29690 1.63147 5.49 
IGS? 0.14027 2.15785 15.39 
120° 0 2.59809 co 
125° —0.07946 2.93961 —37.00 
130° —0.21877 3.21732 —14.69 
IBY ah —0.32206 3.30922 —10.28 
140° —0.34202 3.29645 —9.64 
147° 27/ 37” —0.36901 3.08944 —8.37 
150° —0.36603 2.96412 —8.10 
170° —0. 16837 1.19443 —7.11 
180° 0 0 0/0 = —7.00 
1 The terms in question are: 
2 cos t cos 2t — cos t — cos 3t (1’) 


cos 3t = cos(t + 2¢) = cost cos 2¢ — sin é sin 2t 
Substituting this, the terms in question become 
cos ¢t cos 2t — cost + sin ¢ sin 2¢ (2B) 
Now cos t cos 2¢ + sin t sin 2¢ = cos(t — 24) = cos 
(—t) = cost 
Substituting in (2’), the terms all cancel out. 


May 1951 


Equating this to the sum of the energies of 
the original components we have one equa- 
tion for M, and Ms. 


iM?, + 2M?,+ 2M, M, =1+4 2 (10) 


A second equation for M, and M, is 
needed. 

It is physically reasonable to suppose that 
the original components yj; and y» should con- 
tribute to their resultant in proportion to 
their respective energies. Therefore the co- 
efficients of y; and y» should be proportional 
to the square roots of the energies of the 
original components. 


which gives M, = 24/,. Eliminating WM, be- 
tween this and equation (10) we get 


M,=54 My, = 2(5)-3 


and the resultant becomes 


HEYL: PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION 151 


whose total energy for all values of ¢ is equal 
to 2.5, the sum of the energies of the original 
components. 

For more than two components the fore- 
going 1s easy to generalize. For n components 
there will be n modifying factors. In addition 
to the generalized form of (10) there will be 
(n — 1) ratios between the n modifying fac- 
tors, giving n equations for their deter- 
mination. 

Table 2 gives for the resultant (11) values 
of displacement, force acting and ratio of 
force to displacement for points in the first 
half cycle, as in Table 1. In addition this 
table gives energy values. 

It will be seen in this table that while the 
total energy remains constant the kinetic 
and potential energies fluctuate, the poten- 
tial energy having maxima corresponding to 
the maximum and minimum values of y; 
and at these points the kinetic energy is zero. 
The same peculiarities found in Table 1 
occur here; potential energy and d?y/dé? do 
not have the same maxima, and the values 
of the ratios at 0° and 180° are indeterminate 


y = 5-4sin t + 2(5)-4 sin 2¢ (11) and the evaluated values are given. 
TABLE 2 
t y d?y/dt? Ratio aces Kinetic energy Total energy 

0° 0 0 —3.40 0 2.5 2.5 
20° 0.727883 —2.45319 —3.37 0.896899 1.60309 2.49999 
40° 1.168301 —3.81081 —3.26 2.28665 0.21335 2.50000 
46° 14’ 20” 1.216580 —3.89735 —3.20 2.47308 0.026908 2.49999 
49° 39’ 25” 1.223492 —3.87154 Slit 2.50000 0 2.50000 
50° 1.223424 —3. 86594 —3.16 2.49973 0.00027 2.50000 
70° 0.995171 —2.73027 —2.74 1.75899 0.74101 2.50000 
90° 0.447214 —0.447214 —1.00 0.9 1.6 2.5 

93° 35/ 0.334754 0 0 0.87490 1.62510 2.50000 
100° 0.134506 0.78323 5.82 0.95361 1.54639 2.50000 
104° 28’ 39” 0.000001 1.29904 re) 1.09875 1.40625 2.50000 
110° —0. 154683 1.88978 —12.22 1.33978 1.16023 2.50001 
130° —0.538252 3.18076 —5.91 2.32114 0.17886 2.50000 
136° 17’ 42” —0.584481 3.26856 —5.60 2.47062 0.02939 2.50001 
140° —0.593375 3.23589 —5.45 2.49948 0.00051 2.49999 
140° 34’ —0.593533 3.22632 —5.42 2.5 0 2.5 
150° —0.550992 2.87464 —5.22 2.37141 0.12859 2.50000 
170° —0. 228255 1.14599 —5.02 1.73051 0.76948 2.49999 
180° 0 0 —5.00 1.6 0.9 2.5 


152 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 5 


ETHNOLOGY.—Some medical beliefs and practices of the contemporary Iroquois 
Longhouses of the Six Nations Reserve. MarcrenL Rioux, National Museum of 
Canada, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by William N. Fenton.) 


A member of an Iroquois Longhouse is 
considered to be an individual who dces not 
belong to any of the Christian sects and is 
regarded by his fellow members as a believer 
in the doctrine of Handsome Lake, a native 
prophet who, at the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century, established a new religion 
among his people. Although this doctrine 
is strongly influenced by Christian beliefs 
and practices, it has served to preserve and 
consolidate many traditional Iroquois ideas 
and customs. The name ‘‘Longhouse”’ also 
designates the building where the adherents 
of the Handsome Lake cult hold most of 
their religious rituals and ceremonies. The 
percentage of the Longhouse worshipers is 
about one-fifth of the Iroquois population— 
approximately 5,500—of the whole Six 
Nations Reserve. The majority are located 
on the “‘lower’” end of the reserve and form 
a homogeneous group; the Christians in this 
area are very few. Three of the four Long- 
houses on the reserve are located there, and 
the fourth, the Upper Cayuga Longhouse, 
stands just beyond the boundary of what 
could be considered the Longhouse district. 
The affairs of both the Pagans and the 
Christians are taken care of without dis- 
crimination by the Indian Affairs Branch 
of the Canadian Government. Between the 
two groups no other frontier exists but the 
cultural, and both have practically the same 
historical background. 

Every Iroquois tribe is represented on the 
reserve, but unevenly. Almost all the Mo- 
hawks, Oneidas, and Tuscaroras, who repre- 
sent more than three-fifths of the entire 
population, are Christians; the next fifth of 
Christians consists of Senecas Kanedagas, 
Onondagas Bearfoot along with some Upper 
Cayugas, and a few Lower Cayugas. The 
Cayugas form the bulk of the Longhouse 

1T spent part of the summers of 1949 and 1950 
among the Long-house Iroquois of the Six Nations 
Reserve near Brantford, Ontario, with the view of 
determining the degree and rhythm of accultura- 
tion of this social group. The survey was sponsored 
by the National Museum of Canada, Ottawa. 

2 This designation appears to be not merely 


geographical; it connotes a value- judgment, when 
uttered by Christian Troquois of the ‘“‘upper’’ end. 


believers; among them, the Lower Cayugas, 
who are more numerous than the Upper, are 
the most coherent Longhouse group. The 
Upper Cayugas alone are located outside of 
the Longhouse area. This group has shown 
signs of disintegration in recent years, and 
members are not so staunch in their outlook 
and practices as they used to be. Whereas 
the Mohawks, Cayugas, Oneidas, and Tus- 
caroras constitute homogeneous religious 
groups, the Senecas and Onondagas are 
divided among themselves. Should we follow 
in our analysis the paternal line of descent, 
as is done officially by the Indian Affairs 
office, and increasingly by the Longhouse 
themselves who abandon the traditional 
maternal line, we will find that no Long- 
house worshiper is found among the Bear- 
foot Onondagas, while there are not more 
than two or three among the Senecas 
Kanedagas. On the other hand, most of the 
Onondagas Clearsky and the Senecas 
Wharondas or Aughanagas are Longhouse 
supporters. Are the roots of this divergent 
religious evolution historical or could this 
split be explained in terms of the present 
location of the various tribes and subtribes 
of the Reserve? We note that most of the 
Senecas and Onondagas who live among the 
Cayugas belong to the Handsome Lake 
religion, and those living with the Mohawks 
are Christian. 

Although a full explanation of the actual 
state of the beliefs and practices of the 
Longhouse people concerning medicine could 
not be reached before other aspects of their 
culture are taken into account and discussed 
in relation to one another, a brief outline of 
some of the points under study is given here. 

A cultural trait, it seems, may be re- 
placed only when the borrower finds in a 
new trait an advantage over the one being 
discarded, and when the new trait can be 
readily assimilated by the old culture. To - 
explain the diffusion of technical traits from 
one society to another, one has to find out 
whether the dominated society is at a favour- 
able enough technical level to make use of 
the traits which are offered to it. Leroi 


May 1951 


Gourhan’ states that diffusion does not take 
place when (1) the ethnical group, being in 
a state of technical infericrity cannot un- 
derstand the principles of the new technical 
traits, (2) when an ethnical group, being in 
a state of technical inertia, does not see 
the need of making any effort to assimilate 
the new traits, and (8) when the ethnical 
group, being in a state of intensive technical 
development, neglects what other groups 
have to offer. Could we not add that there 
are cases of partial diffusion when a group, 
for pragmatic reasons, accepts certain new 
traits and still keeps the older complex be- 
cause its ideological culture, which dees not 
follow the same rhythm of acculturation as 
the technical and social cultures, is still 
linked with the older technical traits? 

These principles cculd explain the adop- 
tion by the Iroquois of a vast amount of 
European technical traits and the abandon- 
ment of practically all their technical culture. 
The few native traits still retained mostly 
appertain to medicine. In the old Iroquois 
culture, medicine formed a focus of impor- 
tance, secondary only to political organiza- 
tion and to the agricultural complex, and for 
this reason, it should subsist longer than 
other complexes of lesser importance. Medic- 
inal beliefs and practices, intimately linked 
with their traditional rituals and mythology, 
remain in accord with the structure of their 
personality, which has not changed as fast 
as the external aspects of their culture. 
Their great mechanical ability has enabled 
them to grasp the intricacies of much of the 
European technology and to assimilate it; 
yet, on the whole, some of their cultural 
postulates or themes have prevented them 
from discarding magical beliefs and prac- 
tices. As we shall see later, native medicine 
and European medicine can coexist, while 
some practices cannot continue to exist in 
the presence of others and have, as a matter 
of fact, disappeared or are regressing con- 
stantly. For instance, the folk are still very 
fond of corn bread, yet they do not as a rule 
take the trouble to use it because their 
modern habits do not leave them enough 
time to prepare it. 


3 Leror-GourHan, ANDRE, Miliewx et tech- 


niques: 398-399. 1945. 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


153 


Their medicine may be divided into two 
parts: the first rests on their traditional 
knowledge of the curative properties of 
herbs and other plants; it is empirical. 
The other may be called magical; it consists 
of beliefs and practices in which, from the 
point of view of the observer, no logical 
link is apparent between the means taken 
for a cure and the results expected. As 
Murdock! points out, magical beliefs and 
practices are characterized, among other 
things, by effort to produce effects ‘‘in fellow- 
ing out some mystical principle or associa- 
tion of ideas.’”’ For instance, a fortune-teller 
says to a dyspeptic person: ‘““You must hold 
an Eagle dance because your mother when 
alive, used to put on an Eagle dance from 
time to time. But since she died nobody 
has ever given one.”” We may now ask 
whether the Iroquois make a distinction 
between these two types of medicine, em- 
pirical and magical. Observations to be 
given here presently, tend to show that they 
make a distinction between the two kinds 
of medicine but that it is not made at the 
intellectual but at the affective level; they 
seem to yield to different kinds of sentiments 
when, on the one hand, they go to the 
hospital and when, on the other hand, they 
resort to the fortune-teller or to the witch. 
On the whole, they are inclined to resort 
to the white doctor or to their medicinal 
plants whenever their ailment appears to 
them as being well localized and easy to 
diagnose; but they turn to a fortune-teller 
and sometimes to a witch when their trouble 
seems mysterious. As an informant stated, 
some diseases are for the white doctor to 
cure and others for the fortune-teller. Their 
basic criterion for establishing a distinction 
between the various ailments they suffer 
appears to be the element of mystery lacking 
in the first and present in the others; their 
emotions rise in intensity in proportion 
with the mystery involved; they soon pass 
from fear to anguish. 

If we call empirical that part of Iroquois 
medicine which is based on the knowledge 
of the curative properties of plants and 
herbs, we can state that this practice does 


4Murpock, G. P., in Dictionary of sociology, 
Fairchild, H. P. (ed.): 180. 


154 


not belong exclusively to the Longhouse 
worshipers; for some of the Christians 
still use Iroquois medicine. But, as every- 
thing traditionally Iroquois, it has a tend- 
ency to be identified with Longhouse people 
and culture. In a few cases of passage from 
Christianity to the Handsome Lake religion, 
the reason given to me for the conversion 
was the good effect Iroquois medicine had 
on some people who were very ill. Because 
the whites often express their confidence in 
and admiration for Iroquois medicine, the 
‘Christian Iroquois still keep a verbal, if not 
a practical, attachment to their own tra- 
dition. As this does not conflict with their 
Christian faith, it has been kept as a com- 
pensatory element; there is a strong inclina- 
tion to retain it in both Christian and Long- 
house groups, because it belongs to them 
and for that reason, has become a source of 
pride. To overcome the complex of inferiority 
they have towards the white, they are apt 
to boast that they had and still have a power- 
ful medicine. 

If empirical Iroquois medicine is idealized 
more than practiced among the Christians 
it is still in use among the Longhouse people 
who link it with the Handsome Lake religion 
and native beliefs and customs. Today medi- 
cine has gathered around itself other traits 
which formerly were not so intimately linked 
with it. If the Iroquois institution of giving 
personal names is still maintained by a good 
many Longhouse adherents, it is done, so 
some chiefs say, to keep the medicine prac- 
tices functioning. In some rituals, especially 
where a tobacco offering is made, the name 
of the person for whom the ritual is per- 
formed must be mentioned; as the rituals 
are conducted in the Indian dialect, the name 
itself should also be mentioned in that 
tongue because if the name were uttered 
in English (Christian name) the Great 
Spirit would not know the person concerned. 
Medicine appears to be one of the last 
Indian ecmplexes the Longhouse will aban- 
don; it is of great importance in keeping 
their culture functioning as distinct from 
that of the whites. As early as in 1912, 
Goldenweiser wrote: ‘“‘The Societies of the 
Iroquois, whatever their history may have 
been, are at the present time medicinal in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


their functions.’”®> Most of the societies he 
mentions have kept functioning today de- 
spite the increasing pressure of the white 
culture; it is mostly arcund this medical 
complex that the cultural resistance to as- 
similation has centered and _ erystallized. 
At the Green Bean Festival of last summer, 
I met a young man who had moved out of the 
Longhouse district scme years ago and is 
now working among the Christian Mohawks. 
As he belcngs to a family of Longhouse 
believers, he comes back to the Longhouse 
for seasonal festivals, and came this year 
as usual. But he stayed in his car instead 
of joining the dance inside. He was on the 
verge, so he confessed to me, cf abandon- 
ing that religion and of becoming a Chris- 
tian; the only reason which kept him from 
making this meve, said he, was the Iroquois 
medicine. ‘If I quit, I will lose all the bene- 
fits of our good medicines, and these I don’t 
want to give up.” : 

The economic aspect of medicine, which 
in peasant societies plays an important role 
in the retention of folk practices, works 
here in the opposite way. In French Canada, 
fer example, the physician lives ordinarily 
far from the farms and charges his customers 
for his services; these factors influence the 
peasant to cling to his old ways. At the 
Six Nations Reserve the doctors and hospital 
are located near Indian homes and _ their 
medical services to the natives are given 
free. On this same question of empirical 
medicine, there exists ancther difference 
between the practices of the peasant and 
the Iroquois. As the plants and herbs of the 
Iroquois belong to the past when the tribes 
lived in the woods in the midst of an un- 
disturbed native flora they are now scarce 
and difficult to find. The peasants, on the 
contrary, use plants and herbs usually 
domesticated and close at hand. 

When it comes to magical medicine, the 
split between Christians and Longhouse 
people becomes more accentuated. Although 
there are instances in which Christians have, 
in desperate cases, resorted to the fortune- 
teller, they are becoming rarer every year. 

5 GOLDENWEISER, A. A. ‘“‘On Iroquois Work,” 


in Summary Report of the Geological Survey: 
464-475. Department of Mines, Ottawa, 1912. 


May 1951 


The Christians, as a whole, have forsaken 
the rituals and observances connected with 
medicine and even if a fortune-teller told 
one of them to put on a Buffalo dance, he 
would not be able to perform it or to have 
it performed by his neighbour. The Chris- 
tians have been under the influence of the 
church for so many years—about 300—that 
they have lost even the idea of the fortune- 
teller or the witch. 

The beliefs and practices of the Longhouse 
are not altogether uniform. Various degrees 
of acculturation prevail here. Some people 
are more conservative than others; some are 
becoming open to outside influences. But, 
on the whole, they have a corpus of beliefs 
and of conscious and unconscious attitudes 
which lnk them together very strongly. 
Among them, we find three categories of 
medical practioners. The Indian doctor 
proper is the best known among the whites, 
as he often dresses in ceremcnial garments, 
takes part in exhibitions, county fairs, and 
sells medicine outside the Reserve; he acts 
like an emissary of Iroquois culture. There 
are now two or three Indian doctors of this 
type cn the Six Nations reserve. Though their 
journeys and association with the whites 
have won them some prestige among their 
Longhcuse compatriots, they do not enjoy 
the same esteem among their people as does 
the fortune-teller or even the witch. The folk 
are inclined to talk about them with a little 
disdain and to remark that this kind of a 
doctor is primarily a moneymaker; they do 
not consult him as often as the others; 
they may be proud of his successes at large 
but as he does not often associate with them, 
their preference goes to the fortune-tellers 
and the witches who join them in all cere- 
monies and rituals. 

The fortune-teller, 2 man or woman, is 
not outwardly different from the other 
Longhcuse people. But he or she is a person 
“Who knows a lot of things” and this knowl- 
edge carries great prestige among the con- 
servative elements of the population. He does 
not usually ask for money in payment for 
his services, but tells his patients to give him 
what they consider fair compensaticn. His 
ways of finding cut what is good for a patient 
are many: dreams, leaves of tea, cards, the 
absorption by himself of certain medicines, 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


155 


simple questioning, and the summary ex- 
amination of the patient. His prescriptions 
are varied: herb and bark medicines, mixed 
plant and magical recipes, or just magical 
devices. He stands midway between the 
European doctor who resorts only to em- 
pirical medicine and the witch who resorts 
to magic. At times, the fortune-teller intro- 
duces preventive medicine by ordering, at 
the beginning of summer or winter, a remedy 
which keeps away the diseases common in 
that season of the year; this practice is dying 
out. Most of his efforts, however, are directed 
to mysterious and difficult cases, where he will 
ordinarily prescribe a ritual dance, a feast or 
a game with or without the use of herbs and 
plants. 

The third group of practitioners ccncerned 
with health is more«exclusive and very 
secretive. It takes a long time for an outsider 
to learn their names and to get any informa- 
tion about their black art. People ordinarily 
resort to the witches® when all other means 
have been exhausted. As it is admitted, 
witches are becoming rare and their activities 
are hidden even to the Longhouse believers 
themselves. According to some informants, 
those who aspire to become witches must 
try their power on a member of their own 
family by bewitching this person to death. 
For this very reason even their names re- 
main secret. No witch can denounce another 
witeh without denouncing himself. The feel- 
ings of the people in regard to witches and 
to witcheraft are ambivalent. On the one 
hand, the witch is feared and reprobated for 
his malefie power; and the code of Handsome 
Lake is very severe for witches. But, on the 
other hand, the people cannot help being 
fascinated by his great powers and they try 
to know their names and to get in touch 
with them. The best and the worst are often 
intimately linked, and excessive admiration 
and reprobation are sometimes merged in 
the minds and reactions of the people. 
Maleficious witchcraft and benevolent medi- 
cine are closely connected and the same 
plant may at times be used for both medicine 
and witcheraft, depending on the intentions 
of the person who collects the reots from 
which the powerful medicine or magic is 

6 “Witch’’ is used on the reserve for both male 
and female practitioners of witeheraft. 


156 


extracted. The more beneficial a medicine is, 
the worse it can be if used to bewitch. Their 
most powerful medicine today, according to 
my informants, is Niganéga’a‘, a powder 
extracted from a plant which is said to grow 
only at Salamanca, in New York State. 
Those who go there to collect the plant from 
which the “good medicine” is extracted 
observe strict rules; they must follow the 
plant with their hands from the top to the 
tips of the rccts, deep in the soil. If the 
plant breaks during the operation, the search 
for another must start all over again as only 
plants pulled up in their entirety without 
being broken in any of their parts are suit- 
able. Even when the ends of the roots have 
been reached without accident the only roots 
that are brought are those which grow from 
the east to the west—in the direction that 
the sun follows. Those growing from the 
North to the South must be avoided. How- 
ever, somebody whose ambition it is to 
become a witch can pick these roots; they 
are used for the most powerful witch- 
eraft. It 1s admitted, however, that the 
younger generation knows very little now 
about witchcraft; beliefs and practices are 
being lost; the idea of witcheraft is still 
entertained by a good many people but the 
witches themselves seem to be less active 
and less numerous. 

Of the medicine men enumerated above, 
the fortune-teller is today the most active 
among the Longhouse people of the Six 
Nations Reserve. Of them Parker says: 
“Diviners of mysteries have always been 
prominent among the Indians. Their office 
was to tell their clients the proper medicine 
society that would be more efficacious in 
curing the sick, to discover the whereabouts 
of lost children and articles, to discover 
what witch was working her spells, and to 
tell fortunes, as well as to interpret dreams.’” 
The function of the fortune-teller is similar 
nowadays, except that the first function 
described by Parker is much more to the 
fcre than the others. The only other com- 
ment to be made on Parker’s quotation is 
that witches may be male or female, not 
only female as he seems tc imply. Indeed, 
the best-known witches now are mostly men. 


7 PaRKER, ArnTHUR. The code of Handsome Lake: 
49-50. 1012. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


A question comes up as to a possible parallel 
between the switching of this function from 
women to men and the constant regression of 
what was known as the Iroquois matri- 
archate. The people usually resort to the 
fortune-teller for illnesses which appear 
mysterious to them, mostly internal diseases 
with many symptoms. Although I know of a 
man having gone to a fortune-teller for 
appendicitis, diagnosed as such by a white 
doctor, and another one for an abscess in the 
leg, it seems that in such cases most Long- 
houses would have gone to the hespital. 
Acculturation processes* have been in oper- 
ation for so long that it is safe to state that in 
most instances where the diseases are ex- 
ternal and well diagnosed, the patients 
consult the doctor first before going to the 
fortune-teller or to the witch. 

The wife of one of my informants came 
back from the fruit country where she had 
been “picking” for about two months and 
complained about her health. She had a 
poisoned tooth and felt other symptoms that 
made her “very sick.’”? She had lost her 
appetite, was dizzy at times, and in the 
morning had a funny taste in her mouth; 
she also had pains in the abdomen. As she 
was going to the hospital to have her tooth 
extracted, I advised her to consult the doctor 
about her other troubles. She answered that 
it was not a case for the doctor but for the 
fortune-teller. She went to the hospital, 
came back three or four days later, and called 
the fortune-teller who told her that her dead 
husband was hungry and she must “put up” 
a feast for him. Obviously, there was in her 
mind a clear distinction between various 
illnesses: the ones which can be cured by the 
doctor, the others by the fortune-teller. 

In another family I often visited, the 
mother told me she was not feeling well; 
she had about the same symptoms as the 
other woman just mentioned: loss of ap- 
petite, dizziness, pains in the head. She 
went to the fortune-teller who recommended 
a Bear dance; she was very grateful to him 
because she got better a few days after. 
Some time later, her oldest son was hit 
when stepping off a truck, and was bleeding 

8 Fenton, W. N. Contacts between Iroquois 


herbalism and colonial medicine. Ann. Rep. Smith- 
sonian Institution, 1941: 501-526. 


May 1951 


heavily; her first thought was to call for a 
doctor and to take her son to the hospital. 
As in the previous instance, the woman 
believed that one disease was to be cured 
by the fortune-teller, another by the white 
doctor. 

Many people, however, do not take 
chances and go to both the doctor and the 
fortune-teller for the same illness. It some- 
times happens that having gone first to the 
physician they stop seeing him and consult 
a fortune-teller, particularly when a long 
treatment is required; very soon they get 
discouraged and revert for help to their 
magical practices and medical societies. In 
many cases when they call the doctor, it is 
reaily too late. Seeing that their medicine 
has failed, they call for the doctor and some- 
times go the the hospital just to die. This 
practice does not improve people’s confidence 
in the hospital. 

I have studied the life of a Lower Cayuga 
of the Handsome Lake faith who, in many 
respects, is typical of his culture; he has 
spent all his life on the reserve, in the Long- 
house area, and has undergone the same 
influences as the majority of his fellow- 
believers. But even among the Longhouse 
believers, the effects of acculturation, as I 
have been able to observe them, are not 
uniform. Some people are very conservative 
on certain points while partial to new beliefs 
and practices. It seems that idiosyncrasies 
have much to do with the picking up of 
traits within a certain range. The informant 
just referred to, in matters of rituals and 
religious beliefs, is very strict while he could 
not help laughing at some of the Iroquois 
folk tales and myths; his wife, on the con- 
trary believed in all myths and tales while 
she did not care very much for the rituals. In 
all matters of health and medicine, he was a 
very good informant because, being sick 
himself, he was personally interested. At 
various periods of his life, he had consulted 
the doctor for himself and for his family. As 
the doctor usually was successful, he had 
developed a high opinion of him and of his 
medicine. But I found that on serious 
matters, he had not taken chances, and he 
has used both the doctor and the fortune- 
teller. He is a member of the Bear, Otter, 
Eagle, and False Faces societies, all of them 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


157 


concerned with health. From time to time he 
“puts up” a dance to prevent any illness 
caused by negligence in not keeping the 
rules of the societies. In going over the 
various illnesses he and his family suffered, 
I am unable to detect the reasons he had 
gone to the doctor in certain cases and to 
the fortune-teller in others; except for face 
distortion and nose bleeding which are 
ailments for the False Faces to cure, I 
could not ascertain on what grounds the 
distinction between illnesses was made. 
Some of the illnesses began while the family 
was out in the fruit country where a fortune- 
teller was not available; had they happened 
on the reserve it might have been different; 
in other cases, the doctor or the fortune- 
teller was called, when one or the other failed 
to give satisfaction. 

About five years ago, Pat fell from a barn, 
and although no bone apparently was 
broken he called for the fortune-teller to 
administer him some ‘“‘Niganéga ’a‘”’, the 
good medicine.”’ As it did not work—nothing 
was broken—he called a doctor, because he 
still felt very sick. After a thorough exami- 
nation the doctor said that nothing was 
wrong with him and gave him some pills. 
Since that day, however, he has not been 
able to work; he always complained about 
headaches and stomach and _ intestinal 
troubles. Once in a while he ealls on a 
doctor—every time a new one comes on the 
reserve—and now and then he sees a fortune- 
teller. When he finds that the prescription of 
the fortune-teller does not cure him, he is 
apt to think that he has not enough con- 
fidence in the traditional dances and feasts 
and blames it on himself for not being cured. 

One day, after discussing his problems, he 
told me that the only answer was that he had 
been bewitched; the more he thought of it, 
the more he believed that he had all the 
symptoms of a bewitched person. ‘‘When 
nobody knows the cause of headaches, pains, 
loss of appetite, it is sure that the one who 
suffers these ailments has been bewitched.” 
It was the first time he mentioned this 
suspicion to me, yet it had oecurred to him 
long ago, as soon as the doctor he had con- 
sulted first had told him he did not know 
what was wrong with him. For a year now 
his conviction had grown firmer; his wife had 


158 


then consulted a fortune-teller who was 
picking berries with her and told her that 
she knew that Pat, my informant, had 
been bewitched by a relative of his who had 
reasons to compalin about his behaviour. 
From that time on he was busy with his 
wife trying to find out the person who had 
caused harm to him. Every possibility was 
examined patiently and finally the conclusion 
was reached that 1t was a woman with whom 
he had had some trouble about a horse and a 
succession. This particular woman seemed to 
fit the words of the fortune-teller: she was a 
relative, she might have had some reasons to 
be angry at him and she was thought by 
many to have practiced magic in the past 
and still to practice it. But his trouble did not 
end there. Pat had then to find another 
witch who could counterbalance the influ- 
ence of the first. As the activities of the 
witches are secret and are known only by 
hearsay, finding a stronger one was by no 
means easy. The only one in sight, powerful 
enough, was not on good terms with him. At 
the time he took sick, five years ago, this 
witch, who is also a fortune-teller refused to 
give him ‘‘good medicine,”’ under the pretext 
that he did not have enough of it; my in- 
formant had to beg the Onondaga keeper of 
the medicine for it, which he did not like to 
do. This medicine is all the same whether it 
comes from an Onondaga or from a Cayuga, 
but the portion that the Cayuga keeper has 
should be used for Cayugas. Since that time, 
he has hardly talked to him, and now feels 
hesitant to ask any other favours. As a 
result of this, my informant was getting 
more and more perplexed, and the idea that 
he was bewitched never ceased to grow with 
him. 

An example of the use of both empirical 
and magical medicine is that of a young man 
lying in bed with fever. One morning he told 
his parents that he had seen many little men 
going up and down on his bed. The parents 
decided that, on account of this vision, he 
should be made a member of the Pigmy 
Society; the same day, the doctor, who had 
been called previously, decided to bring the 
lad to the hospital; and the parents, who had 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


decided to put up a “Dark dance,” had to 
have this done the night after his departure. 
As he was away, his shirt was placed on a 
chair to signify that the ceremony was con- 
ducted for him, in his absence. , 

The activities of Iroquois practitioners do 
not keep their people from going more and 
more to their own hospital on the reserve. As 
they are generally less aggressive than the 
Christians, they are prone to take advantage 
of the facilities which the whites have placed 
at their disposal. Yet, in many cases, their 
stubborn conservatism prevents the Long- 
house people, and for that matter the 
Christian Iroquois as well, from going away 
from their relatives and friends; they fear 
any new contacts they may have to make at 
the hospital. As in peasant societies the in- 
group-belonging remains strong, despite the 
constant pressure urban culture exercises on 
both societies. 

Fheir use of both empirical and magical 
medicine appears to be a double-security 
system for the individual. Just because the 
white medicine succeeds in many cases they 
do not lose confidence in their own medicine. 
The differences between these two systems 
do not bother them very much. They see the 
white medicine with their own eyes. Not 
knowing the principles of this medicine, they 
are apt to think of the white doctor as 
another kind of fortune-teller. The latter at 
times mixes empirical and magical medicine 
and they are not astonished at the practices 
of the white doctor. It is probably because 
they make no clear distinction between the 
two that they also expect from the white 
doctor a quick cure. Examples of rapid cures 
are quoted with great admiration and a long 
cure is no cure. ‘“‘Next day he was better and 
went to work” is the happiest solution and 
the only one worth mentioning. 

In further studies on this subject, I will try 
to show that if some of the old beliefs and 
practices concerning medicine are still enter- 
tained among the Iroquois Longhouse it is 
because their personality has not been ac- 
culturated at the same rhythm as the rest of 
their culture and that there is still room for 
faith in magic. 


May 1951 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN 


ALASKA 159 


GEOLOGY.—Present Cretaceous stratigraphic nomenclature of northern Alaska 
Grorce Gryc, W. W. Patron, JR., and T. G. Payng,? U. S. Geological Sur- 
vey. (Communicated by W. F. Foshag.) 


Until 1944, geologic investigations in 
northern Alaska were of a reconnaissance 
nature and few stratigraphic units were 
recognized and named. Since 1944 the U.S 
Geological Survey in cooperation with the 
U.S. Navy has been investigating the pe- 
troleum possibilities of Naval Petroleum Re- 
serve No. 4. These investigations have 
covered nearly all northern Alaska from the 
Jago River west to the Kukpowruk River 
and from the Arctic Ocean south to and in 
eee places into the Brooks Range 
(Fig. This work has resulted in much 
more iousted information on the geology of 
the region. Rocks ranging in age from ques- 
tionable pre-Cambrian to Pleistocene have 
been mapped and drilled. Cambrian, Ordo- 
vician, and Silurian rocks are not known to 
crop out north of the crest of the Brooks 
Range, but all other systems are represented 
(Fig. 2). To date the Cretaceous rocks have 
been studied more intensively than the rocks 
of any other age, and as a result a more de- 
tailed classification has been achieved 
(Fig. 3). 

The Cretaceous rocks in the Anaktuvuk 
(Anaktoovuk) River area of northern Alaska 
were first described by Schrader.’ Smith and 
Mertie* redefined the age of some of these 
rocks and added descriptions of their dis- 
tribution and lithology. The present study 
has resulted in many changes in the 
stratigraphic classification. It is not always 
possible to tell from the literature what rocks 
have been included in previously described 
stratigraphic units and therefore these units 
may not be strictly comparable to the 
stratigraphic units introduced here. The ap- 
parent relationship of past and _ present 
stratigraphic nomenclature is shown in 


Table 1. 


1 Published by permission of 
U.S. Geological Survey. 

2 Authors listed in alphabetical order. 

3 ScHRADER, F. C., Geological section of the 
Rocky Mountains in northern Alaska. Bull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. 13: 247. 1902. 

4Suitru, P.S., and Merrin, J. B., 
and mineral resources of northern Alaska. 
U.S. Geol. Surv. 815: 196-232. 1930. 


the Director, 


JR., Geology 
Bull. 


The new classification is here presented 
and discussed. This classification is based on 
geologic field studies of the outcrop areas 
and on laboratory studies by the U.S. Geo- 
logical Survey during the period 1944 to 
1951. 


CRETACEOUS ROCKS 
Lower Cretaceous 
OKPIKRUAK FORMATION (NEW) 


The Ckpikruak formation (new) is typically 
exposed along the Okpikruak River, from which 
it is named. The type section les in the middle 
of a major syncline and is exposed on a small 
tributary of the Okpikruak River at about lat. 
68°34/30’N. and long. 153°38’W. The formation 
crops out in the southern part of the Arctic 
Foothills province from the Itkillik River west 
to the Kukpowruk River. In the Arctic Foothills 
province, as far as known, it rests on Jurassic or 
Triassic rocks with little or no angular discord- 
ance. At its type locality it is about 2,400 feet 
thick. To date this is the greatest thickness meas- 
ured, but an erosion surface between it and the 
overlying Torok formation indicates that it may 
be thicker elsewhere. It is predominantly fine- 
grained greenish-gray sandstone of the gray- 
wacke type, dark clay, and silt shale with minor 
amounts of conglomerate near the base. On the 
Siksikpuk River, where part of the formation is 
well exposed, it is 1,850 feet thick. Here it is 
characterized by a rhythmic alternation of fine- 
grained sandstone, silt shale, and clay shale. 
This alternation is not well developed in the 
formation along the Okpikruak River, although 
there is a suggestion of it. 

The pelecypod Aucella crassicollis Keyserling,° 
which is characteristic of early lower Cretaceous 
(Neocomian) is found throughout this formation 
in the area of the type locality. The ammonite 
Lytoceras sp. also been collected in the 
Siksikpuk River area. In the Nimiuktuk-Kugu- 
rurok Rivers area on the south side of the De 
Longe Mountains Auwcella Pavlow and 
Aucella crassa Pavlow have been collected. These 


has 


okensis 


5 Tdentifieation of macrofossils from the Okpik- 
ruak and Torok formations have been made by 


Dr. Ralph W. Imlay. 


160 


forms are characteristic of the very earliest 
Lower Cretaceous and would presumably mark 
a zone lower than that of Aucella crassicollis 
Keyserling. 


TOROK FORMATION (NEW) 


The type locality of the Torok formation 
(new) is Torok Creek, a tributary to the Chan- 
dler River in the vicinity of Castle Mountain. 
At Castle Mountain the Torok formation in the 
lower part comprises 2,000 feet of dark silt and 
clay shale with limestone concretions, and in the 
upper part about 8,500 feet of dark shale and 
marine conglomerate and sandstone of gray- 
wacke type. In exposures on the Chandler and 
Kiruktagiak Rivers, in the vicinity of Tuktu 
Bluff about 11 miles north of Castle Mountain, 
the Torok formation in the upper part consists 
of 4,500 feet of dark clay and silt shale, which 
includes 500 feet of sandstone and some con- 
glomerate, and in the lower part, of 1,500 feet 
of dark silt and clay shale. Thus at Tuktu Bluff 
the Torok formation is 6,000 feet thick as com- 
pared with 10,500 feet at Castle Mountain. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 5 

The Torok formation is widely exposed in an 
east-west belt in the Southern Foothills section 
of the Arctic Foothills province. This belt is 
characterized topographically by irregular, iso- 
lated hills and ridges of sandstone and con- 
glomerate, which rise above low-lying areas of 
little relief developed on the shale. Structurally, 
many of these isolated hills, such as Castle 
Mountain and Fortress Mountain, are synclines. 
At most places the Torok formation overlies the 
Okpikruak formation, but at one place has been 
found overlying Triassic rocks, indicating warp- 
ing and erosion of the Okpikruak formation and 
Jurassic rocks in post-Okpikruak time. The de- 
gree of angular unconformity is unknown, as 
the contact is poorly exposed. 

The fauna of the Torok formation is very 
scarce but includes some characteristic Aptian 
and early Albian forms. There are a few species 
of Inoceramus, Beudanticeras sp., Cleoniceras sp., 
Lemuroceras sp., Lemuroceras cf. L. belli Me- 
Learn, Lemuroceras cf. L. aburense Spath, and 
Aucellina cf. A. dowlingi. The ammonite Cleo- 
niceras sp. also ranges into the overlymg Tuktu 


TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF PAST AND PRESENT STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE OF THE CRETACEOUS 
AND TERTIARY OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


Schrader, 1902 Smith and Mertie, 1930 


Gryc, Patton, and Payne, 1951 


Goobie (Gubik) sands Quaternary > Gubik formation 
& 
3 
Tertiary Colville Tertiary S 
series 
| 2 
| a ; ‘ 
| +S Sagavanirktok formation* 
o 
bis 
5 Prince Creek Schrader Bluff 
Upper Cretaceous w | oo : : 
: Oo) 5 formation formation 
ae a | oe (nonmarine) (marine) 
Dp |S 
n 
Upper Cret S 
er Cretaceous ° : 
we paeny: S jaw | Chandler for- | Umiat forma- 
Nanushuk series S ; ey ; : 
a || “a 2 mation tion 
5) 3 z = (nonmarine) (marine) 
ee 
Lower Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous m Torok formation 
Anaktoovuk series | z 
(Anaktuvuk) series A Okpikruak formation 


* Sagavanirktok formation is not equivalent to rocks previously called Tertiary and is not be- 


lieved to be present in areas studied before 1944. 


161 


May 1951 Gryc ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


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162 


member of the Umiat formation. Arenaceous 
Foraminifera dominate the microfaunal assem- 
blage. 


Lower Cretaceous and Lower (?) Cretaceous 
NANUSHUK GROUP (REDEFINED) 


The Nanushuk “series”’ was named by Schra- 
der® from the Nanushuk River which joins the 
Anaktuvuk River at about the midpoint of the 
type section. The type section was described by 
Schrader as the belt of rocks beginning 5 miles 
north of the junction of the Colville and Anak- 
tuvuk Rivers and extending south for 30 miles. 
These rocks were described as sandstone, lime- 
stone, shale, quartzite, chert, black slate, and 
coal. Schrader’ states that the series is best ex- 
posed “in the north (northeast) bank of the 
Anaktuvuk about 5 miles above the mouth of 
Tuluga River.”’ This exposure is redescribed here 
as the type locality of the Schrader Bluff forma- 
tion (new) of the Colville group (redefined). It 
is now apparent that rocks described by Schra- 
der as the Nanushuk “series” of Upper Creta- 
ceous age included beds of both Upper and Lower 
Cretaceous age and possibly older. 

The name Nanushuk is here applied to a group 
of rocks of Lower Cretaceous and Lower (?) 
Cretaceous age. These are exposed along the 
Nanushuk River where the river cuts across the 
Arctie Foothills province of northern Alaska. 
Rocks of this group are known to crop out 
throughout the foothills north of the Brooks 
Range from the Sagavanirktok River west as far 
as the Kukpowruk River. The contact between 
the Nanushuk group and the Torok formation 
is believed to be gradational, but the contact 
zone generally is not well exposed because of the 
nonresistant nature of the Torok formation. In 
the Nanushuk River area the Torok formation 
appears to dip regionally more steeply than the 
Nanushuk group, but this is apparently due to 
a difference in competence. In the Kukpowruk 
River area the contact appears to be lithologi- 
cally gradational. 

The Nanushuk group includes shale, sand- 
stone, conglomerate, and coal beds with little or 
no bentonite or tuff. It is estimated to be 5,750 
feet thick in the outcrop area, but it thins 
slightly northward. Nonmarine and marine sedi- 
mentary rocks intertongue, as a result of re- 

6 ScuHRADER, F. C., A reconnaissance in northern 


Alaska. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 20: 79. 1904. 
7 ScHRADER, F. C., Idem. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


peated marine transgressions and regressions in 
Nanushuk time. Thus the Nanushuk group in- 
cludes two intertonguing formations—the Chan- 
dler (nonmarine), which tongues into the Umiat 
(marine) to the north. Fig. 3 shows the relation- 
ship of the formations, members, and tongues. 

Umiat formation (new).—The Umiat forma- 
tion of the Nanushuk group is named from the 
marine part of the section below 750 feet in 
Umiat Test Well No. 1. (See Fig. 3.) In the 
vicinity of Umiat the inshore facies of the forma- 
tion consists of relatively clean sandstone that 
grades northeast through argillaceous sandstone 
into shale of the offshore facies. The formation 
is estimated to be about 5,000 feet thick; the 
lower part is marine shale similar to shale of the 
Torok formation, which it overlies. Its fauna is 
almost exclusively mollusks and arenaceous Fo- 
raminifera. The lower part of the Umiat forma- 
tion is Lower Cretaceous (mid-Albian), as deter- 
mined from the scarce but distinctive mollusks. 
The upper part of the Umiat formation is prob- 
ably also Lower Cretaceous (upper Albian), but 
the fossil data are inconclusive. The Foraminif- 
era show a marked resemblance to those of the 
Ashville formation of Canada. The Umiat forma- 
tion has been divided into two members—the 
Tuktu and the Topagoruk. 

The Tuktu member is the basal member of 
the Umiat formation. Its type locality is on the 
Chandler River where this river cuts through 
Tuktu Bluff, a continuous south-facing escarp- 
ment that can be traced for many miles. At the 
type locality the member is about 1,000 feet 
thick and underlies the Hatbox tongue of the 
Chandler formation (see below). Here it consists 
almost entirely of marine sandstone. Northward 
from Tuktu Bluff to Umiat the member thickens 
progressively to about 2,500 feet and includes 
part of the marine equivalent of the Hatbox 
tongue of the Chandler formation, as this tongue 
changes to a marine facies. The characteristic 
fossil is an undescribed Lower Cretaceous Ino- 
ceramus. The ammonite Cleoniceras ranges from 
the Torok formation into the Tuktu member of 
the Umiat formation. The base of the Tuktu 
member coincides with the base of the Umiat 
formation and the base of the Nanushuk group. 

The Topagoruk member of the Umiat forma- 
tion is named from the section in Topagoruk 
Test Wel! No. 1, from 50 to about 3,100 feet. The 
top 1,000 feet includes nonmarine units of the 
Niakogon tongue of the Chandler formation and 


May 1951 


consists of coal, shale, sandstone, and minor 
amounts of ironstone. The bottom 2,100 feet is 
entirely marine clay shale, silt shale, silt, and 
sandstone. Fossils found in this member are Fo- 
raminifera, the scaphopod Laevidentaliwm, and 
Inoceramus prisms. It is suggested that these 
fossils are of Lower Cretaceous age but this is 


QUATERNARY 


UPPER 


LOWER (?) 


~< SOUTH 


GROUP 
Prince Creek formation 
(nonmarine) 


COLVILLE 


CRETACEOUS 


formation 


Qa 
=) 
) 
a 
O 
x 
=) 
ae 
ee) 
=) 
Zz 
<x 
Zz 


Torok 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


Gu bik 


Saqaqgavadwpmitrkiwok 


163 


not definitely established. The Topagoruk mem- 
ber thickens southward and intertongues with the 
Hatbox and Niakogon tongues of the Chandler 
formation. In much of the outcrop belt the To- 
pagoruk member is represented by a marine 
sandstone which contains a diagnostic unde- 
scribed Inoceramus and other pelecypods. 


vOrim Gi 1 Om 
unconformity 


TOP Mart © M 
disconformity 
NORTH > 


Sentinel Hil! 
member 


Schrader Bluff formation 
( marine) 


Topagoruk 
member 


Umiat formation 
(marine) 


fOr mat | © fm 


(local intraformational unconformities) 


EARLY 
LOWER 


UPPER 
MIDDLE 
LOWER 


JURASSIC 


MISSIS- 
S1P- 
PIAN 


CARBONIFEROUS 


DEVONIAN 


PRE- 
CAMBRIAN (?) 


Sin ul ii k 


S@dadlear oc it \ 


disconformity 


Lisburne 
Noatak 


Unnamed 


Neruokpuk 


(local unconformity) 
Okpikruak 


VOrmoatt © i 


TOr may i © in 


disconformity(?) 


Suidhnedrsehlomnce 


limestone 
frOhtamMeGh oun 


formation 
unconformity 


PO te tad Chit To) i 


Fig. 2.—Diagrammatic columnar section of the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. 


164 


Chandler formation (new).—The Chandler for- 
mation (nonmarine) is exposed in the Northern 
Foothills section of the Arctic Foothills province 
of northern Alaska. It is the age equivalent of 
the Umiat formation, with which it intertongues 
northward in two major tongues (named) and 
several minor tongues (unnamed). Its type lo- 
cality is on the Chandler River where the river 
crosses the Northern Foothills section. Litho- 
logically most of the formation in the southern 
exposures 1s nonmarine sandstone and conglom- 
erate. To the north it grades into shale with inter- 
bedded sandstone and coal; it contains a few 
fresh- to brackish-water mollusks in its northerly 
exposures. Along the Chandler River the forma- 
tion is about 4,700 feet thick but includes minor 
units of marine strata of the Umiat formation. 
The Chandler formation overlies the Tuktu mem- 
ber of the Umiat formation in the southern part 
of the outcrop area. 

The Hatbox tongue (new) at its type locality, 
Hatbox Mesa in the Chandler River drainage, is 
approximately 3,000 feet thick and wedges out 
northward. It is the lower part of the Chandler 
formation and lies between the marine Tuktu 
and Topagoruk members of the Umiat formation. 

The Niakogon tongue (new) represents the 
upper part of the Chandler formation. Its type 
locality is Niakogon Buttes, between the Chan- 
dler and Anaktuvuk Rivers. In the southern part 
of its outcrop area it is about 1,700 feet thick; 
it wedges out northward. A persistent conglom- 
erate bed, characterized by a greater percentage 
of white quartz pebbles than is found in other 
conglomerates in the region, forms the top bed 
of the Niakogon tongue. 


Upper Cretaceous 
COLVILLE GROUP (REDEFINED) 


The Colville ‘“‘series’”’ was named by Schrader 
from exposures along the Colville River north 
of the junction with the Anaktuvuk River. On 
the basis of lithology and scanty floral evidence 
Schrader® concluded that these rocks were of 
Tertiary age. Smith and Mertie® concluded that 
“from the fossil evidence obtained in the appar- 
ent continuation of these rocks farther west” 
the lower part of the Colville “series” was of 
Upper Cretaceous age. It is now evident from 

8 SCHRADER, F. C., Op. cit.: 81-83. 


*Smitx, P.S., and Merrie, J. B., JR., op. cit.: 
232-233. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 5 
microfaunal and macrofaunal evidence that these 
rocks are all of Upper Cretaceous age. The ex- 
posure on the west side of the Colville River 1 
mile north of the 70th parallel was considered to 
be Tertiary by Smith and Mertie!®. It is now 
believed that this exposure is of the same age 
as the Gubik formation, which is Pleistocene. 
This is apparently substantiated by the lack of 
any Tertiary beds in the many core tests and 
test wells in the Barrow-Simpson and Fish Creek 
areas to the west of the Colville River. 

The Colville series is here redefined as the 
Colville group, applied to type exposures along 
the Colville River from approximately the junc- 
tion with Prince Creek east and north to the 
70th parallel. Rocks of this group are well ex- 
posed in river cuts; on the Colville River these 
cuts form bluffs that are nearly continuous from 
Umiat north to Ocean Point. These rocks extend 
west to about the longitude of the Ikpikpuk 
River and east to the Canning River, and per- 
haps beyond. 

The Colville group is separated from the un- 
derlying Nanushuk group by a major uncon- 
formity. Rocks of lower Upper Cretaceous age 
(Cenomanian) appear to be missing. Beds of 
middle Upper Cretaceous age (Turonian) in the 
Colville group overlie beds of probable upper- 
most Lower Cretaceous age (Albian) in the Na- 
nushuk group. The basal member of the Colville 
group is a distinctive unit consisting of black 
shale with limestone interbeds that can be read- 
ily identified in the field. The Colville group is 
divided into the nonmarine Prince Creek forma- 
tion and the marine Schrader Bluff formation, 
which are approximately of equivalent age. In 
most of the outcrop belt the two formations 
intertongue and are not always readily distin- 
guishable. 

Lithologically the group includes clastic rocks 
ranging from shale to conglomerate, limestone, 
low grade oil shale, and coal. The total thickness 
of the group is about 5,200 feet. 

Schrader Bluff formation (new).—The name 
Schrader Bluff formation (marine) is given to 
exposures at Schrader Bluff on the Anaktuvuk 
River just south of the junction with the Tuluga 
River. This bluff exposes the three members of 
the formation in over 3,000 feet of continuous 
outcrop. The formation has been identified in 


10 SmitH, P.S., and Merri, J. B., JR., op. cit.: 
PRS. 


ae 


165 


CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


. 


May 1951 Gryc ET AL. 


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166 


well cores from the Umiat, Fish Creek, Sentinel 
Hill, and Cape Simpson areas. North of Umiat 
the Schrader Bluff formation is bounded below 
by the Umiat formation, and in the Umiat area 
and to the south by the Niakogon tongue of the 
Chandler formation. 

Lithologically it is similar to the Umiat forma- 
tien, consisting largely of marine sandstone to 
the south and shale to the north, but it has a 
much larger percentage of bentonite and tuff, 
which increases upward through the formation. 
At Fish Creek Test Well No. 1 it is 2,600 feet 
thick. 

The Schrader Bluff formation contains more 
megafossils, mostly mollusks, than the Umiat 
formation. The characteristic megafossils are spe- 
cies of Inoceramus and Scaphites. Foraminifera 
are somewhat rarer than in the Umiat formation, 
but local zones of planktonic forms are present. 

The Seabee member is the lowest unit of the 
Schrader Bluff formation. In the outcrop area it 
is bounded below by the Niakogon tongue of the 
Chandler formation. The top part of the Seabee 
member contains a very distinctive 150-foot unit 
of fossiliferous paper shale, which is a low-grade 
oil shale and contains a characteristic fauna. 
Index fossils are Scaphites delicatulus Warren, 
Watinoceras n. sp., Borissjakoceras n. sp., and 
Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim, which indicate 
that this unit is the equivalent of the Greenhorn 
limestone of Upper Cretaceous age of the western 
interior United States. The member is well ex- 
posed along a tributary of the Colville River, 
Seabee Creek, for which it is named. It is also 
well exposed along Maybe Creek, a tributary of 
the Ikpikpuk River. The Seabee member is 450 
feet thick in the type locality. 

The Tuluga member is named from the Tuluga 
River, which enters the Anaktuvuk River at the 
north end of Schrader Bluff. Schrader Bluff is the 
best exposure of this member and is its type lo- 
cality. The member is also well exposed on the 
Chandler River near the confluence with the 
Ayiyak River and on the Colville River in the 
Umiat area. The maximum thickness is esti- 
mated to be 2,200 feet in the outcrop belt, but 
this thickness includes minor units of the Tulu- 
vak tongue of the Prince Creek formation. In 
Fish Creek Test Well No. 1, from 1,195 to 2,350 
feet, this member is almost entirely marine ex- 
cept for one thin coal bed and associated sand- 
stone. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


Lithologically the Tuluga member is distin- 
guished by abundant bentonite and tuff inter- 
bedded with a light-colored sandstone, and shale. 
The Tuluga member contains the largest number 
of individuals and species of macrofossils of any 
unit in the Cretaceous cf northern Alaska. Fos- 
sils are commonly distributed throughout sand- 
stone zones a few hundred feet thick. The diag- 
nostic macrofossils are Inoceramus lundbreckensis 
McLearn and an undescribed Scaphites. 

The Sentinel Hill member is named from the 
section in Sentinel Hill Core Test No. 1 in which 
a little over 1,100 feet of marine beds of this 
member and nonmarine beds of the Kogosukruk 
member of the Prince Creek formation were 
penetrated. In the outcrop belt along the Col- 
ville River equivalent intertonguing marine and 
nonmarine beds total 2,340 feet. 

Lithologically the Sentinel Hill member is 
characterized by volcanic glass shards, abundant 
bentonite, and tuff. In outcrop the beds are less 
consolidated than the underlying members. Fau- 
nally this member is distinguished by abundant 
radiolaria, fish bones, and diagnostic Foraminif- 
era. Macrofossils are rare and consist of long- 
ranging generalized types of pelecypods. 

Prince Creek formation (new).—The Prince 
Creek formation of the Colville group includes 
all the nonmarine beds above the top of the 
Niakogon tongue of the Chandler formation and 
intertongues with the Schrader Bluff formation. 
The type locality is Prince Creek, a tributary to 
the Colville River. The Prince Creek formation, 
like the Chandler formation, is made up of sand- 
stone, conglomerate, shale, and coal, but con- 
tains considerably more bentonite and tuff than 
does the Chandler formation. Its fauna consists 
of a few fresh- to brackish-water mollusks. The 
Prince Creek formation has been separated into 
two major tongues. 

The Tuluvak tongue, the lower part of the 
Prince Creek formation, is best exposed in the 
Tuluvak Bluffs on the Chandler River where it 
is 1,200 feet thick. It overlies the Seabee member 
(marine) of the Schrader Bluff formation. 

The Kogosukruk tongue is the age equivalent 
of the Sentinel Hill member of the Schrader 
Bluff formation. It is named from the Kogosuk- 
ruk River, along which it is well exposed. Equally 
good if not better exposures which are more 
readily accessible are along the Colville River 
from near its confluence with the Anaktuvuk 


May 1951 


River to Ocean Point just north of the 70th 
parallel. The total thickness along the Colville 
is 2,340 feet but this includes marine units of the 
Sentinel Hill member of the Schrader Bluff for- 
mation. 

The Kogosukruk tongue is distinguished from 
the older units by its poor consolidation, finer 
texture and somewhat brighter colors. It consists 
largely of clay, silt, and shale. Bony coal and 
bentonitic beds are common. Sandstone is rare, 
and only one conglomerate, 15 feet thick, has 
been mapped. Macrofossils are very rare and 
consist of fresh-water and brackish-water pelecy- 
pods and gastropods. 

In the outcrop belt this tongue overlies the 
Tuluga member of the Schrader Bluff formation 
and is covered by a thin mantle of the Gubik 
(Quaternary) formation. 


TERTIARY ROCKS 
Sagavanirktok formation (new) 


The Sagavanirktok formation crops out in the 
Franklin Bluffs, its type locality, along the lower 
part of the Sagavanirktok River and is also well 
exposed in the White Hills area. It consists 
mainly of red-bed-type, poorly consolidated silt- 
stone, sandstone, conglomerate, and lignite. No 
fauna has been found, but the formation does 
contain an early Tertiary flora: The Sagavanirk- 
tok formation is structurally conformable with 
the underlying Colville group and no large ero- 
sional break is indicated by the field data. The 
rocks here named the Sagavanirktok formation 
have not been previously mapped or described. 
They apparently do not crop out west of the 
Ttkillik River and are not definitely known in 
the Canning River area. Thus the formation lies 
in an area that was unmapped and unexplored by 
geologists before 1944 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


QUATERNARY ROCKS 
Pleistocene 
GUBIK FORMATION 


The Gubik formation of Pleistocene age man- 
tles the older rocks in much of the Arctic Coastal 
Plain of northern Alaska. The name Gubik sand 
was first applied by Schrader! to a “surficial 
deposit of brownish sand or loam about 10 to 
15 feet in thickness” which is exposed along the 
Colville River in the Coastal Plain province. 
The name is from the Eskimo name of the Col- 
ville River. Leffingwell’? points out that the 
Eskimo name for the lower river is Kupik or 
“big river.” Gubik, now the accepted spelling, 
is apparently a misspelling of Kupik. 

The Gubik formation, as here redefined, ranges 
in thickness from a few feet to 150 feet, but in 
most exposures is 10 to 30 feet thick. It is largely 
marine and consists predominantly of loosely 
consolidated, cross-bedded, brown or buff gravel, 
sand, silt, and clay. The microfauna is somewhat 
similar to recent faunas and is more diversified 
than any of the older microfaunas of northern 
Alaska. The Gubik fauna differs from living Arc- 
tic faunas in that no pelagic forms have been 
found. 

The bluffs along the west bank of the Colville 
River from the mouth of the Anaktuvuk River 
to Ocean Point expose the Gubik formation lying 
unconformably on the upper 1,500 feet of the 
Colville group. This is the original type locality 
as defined by Schrader. A maximum thickness 
of 30 feet is exposed along the Colville River, 
but a thickness of 150 feet has been mapped on 
the Kikiakrorak River, 15 airline miles upstream 
from its confluence with the Colville River. 


11 ScHRADER, F. C., op. ecit.: 98. 

12 LeEFFINGWELL, E. DE K., The Canning River 
region, northern Alaska. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. 
Pap. 109: 95, 109. 1919. 

13 ScHRADER, F. C., op. cit.: 98. 


168 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


ZOOLOGY .—A new subgenus of Diaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida), including an 
Asiatic species and a new species from Alaska. MitpDRED STRATTON WILSON, 
Arctic Health Research Center, Public Health Service, Federal Security 
Agency, Anchorage, Alaska. (Communicated by F. A. Chace, Jr.) 


This paper is part of a projected survey 
of the fresh-water Copepoda of Alaska. It 
includes the description of a new species of 
Diaptomus that has zoogeographical im- 
portance because of its close relationship to 
one from the Asiatic portion of the U.S.S. R. 
This latter species (D. rylovt Smirnov, 1930) 
has been assigned by Kiefer (1938a) to his 
genus Neutrodiaptomus. Since it and the new 
Alaskan species exhibit distinct differences 
from all the other members of this group, a 
new division is proposed to include them. 
This is given the status of subgenus, as I 
agree with Light that the structural range of 
variation among the species of Diaptomus 
(sensu lato) is not great enough to allow the 
full rank of genus to most of the subdivisions 
of the so-called Diaptominae proposed by 
Kiefer (1932, 1936a-d, 1937, 1938a-b) and 
himself (1938, 1939). 


Family DrapToMIDAE 
Genus Diaptomus Westwood 


The broad definition of Diaptomus used here 
excludes only the species delegated by Kiefer to 
genera of the Paradiaptominae and to Acantho- 
diaptomus, which is characterized by features 
common to his two subfamilies. Such a definition 
must include Hemidiaptomus Sars, 1903, because 
it is naturally a part of the large series of sub- 
genera into which it is possible to divide Diapto- 
mus. Kiefer’s studies have drawn attention to 
the highly significant, but hitherto largely ne- 
glected characters of the left exopod of the male 
fifth leg. The structure in Hemidiaptomus of this 
and of other appendages of systematic import- 
ance, do not depart from the basic patterns 
found in Diaptomus. 

One of the remainder of Kiefer’s groups, 
Psychrodiaptomus (1938b), is a synonym of Lepto- 
diaptomus Light. These names were both pro- 
posed in 1938, but the publication date of 
Leptodiaptomus, March 9, precedes that of 
Psychrodiaptomus, April 20. 

It is felt that detailed reexamination of many 
species, particularly of those of North America, 
is needed before an evaluation of Kiefer’s system 


of classification is possible. Therefore, a rediagno- 
sis of Diaptomus is deferred for the present. 


Nordodiaptomus, n. subg. 


Subgenotype—Diaptomus siberiensis, new name 
for Diaptomus rylovi Smirnov, 1980. 

Diagnosis. —Of moderate size, length of females 
between 1.6 and 2.4 mm; of males between 1.4 
and 1.7 mm. Metasome without bizarre protru- 
sions, the wings of last segment in female only 
moderately developed; last segment distinct in 
male. Urosome of female with 3 well-defined 
segments, the genital a little asymmetrical, the 
sensilla not grossly developed; urosome of male 
asymmetrical or not. 

Antennules short in both sexes, only reaching 
to near the end of the metasome; that of the 
female with a stout, very elongate seta on the 
first segment, and with segments 11 and 138 to 
19 usually with 2 setae. The left antennule of 
the male differmg from that of the female in 
having the seta of segment 1 not so well developed 
and only a few of segments 13 to 19 with more 
than 1 seta. Right antennule of male with the 
spines of segments 8 and 12 not enlarged, those 
of 10, 11 and 13 much enlarged, with dissected 
ends, that of 13 not reaching beyond segment 14; 
segments 14-16 very tumid, 14 without a process 
or spine; segments 15-16 with short cuticular 
processes; the antepenultimate segment without 
armature of any kind. 

Maxilliped not enlarged; the endopod about 
half the length of the basipod, its setae slender 
and nonprehensile. 

Outer spines of the exopods of legs 1-4 normal, 
those of leg 1 not at all enlarged. Leg 2 of female 
lacking the dorsal cuticular lappet (Schmeil’s 
organ) of the second endopod segment; absent 
or not in the male. 

Fifth leg of female with exopod symmetrical, 
the third segment distinct, its setae and that of 
the second segment not elongate but very stout 
and subequal to one another. The endopod 
usually. shorter than the first exopod segment, 
normally with a single, subapical, more or less 
well developed spiniform seta. The endopod and 
its armature symmetrical or not, the whole ramus 
sometimes subject to considerable variation 
within a single population. 


May 1951 


Fifth leg of male without bizarre armature. 
The right leg having the apical claw very elon- 
gate, its length about equal to that of the rest 
of the ramus; the lateral spine of exopod 2 stout 
and near the terminus of the segment; posterior 
face of exopod 1 with very small but heavy lamel- 
lae. Exopod 2 with or without imner cuticular 
spine. Both pads of the distal segment of the 
left exopod well defined, about equal in length, 
the distal narrower than the other, postero- 
medial in position; the proximal bulging a little 
medially, and with a narrowed portion extended 
across the top of the segment on the anterior 
side; both pads armed conspicuously with slender 
to stout hairs. The processes closely set, both 
distally directed; the distal short, its length not 
more than one-half that of the outer margin of 
the segment, digitiform, continuous with but 
more or less demarcated from the segment, with 
or without spinules on its inner margin; the 
proximal process a subterminal, stout, curving 
spine, reaching to the end of the other process 
or beyond, armed laterally with spinules. Endo- 
pods not grossly developed. 

Included species: Diaptomus siberiensis, n. 
name; Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp. 


Diaptomus siberiensis, n. name 


Diaptomus rylovt Smirnov, 1930, pp. 79-82, fig. 1; 
1931, pp. 627-634, figs. 12-21; Kiefer, 1932, p. 478. 
Neutrodiaptomus rylovi Kiefer, 1938a, p. 46. 


The description given in German by Smirnov 
(1931) has been largely used in this study. The 
diagnostic characters of D. siberiensis are given 
herein in the section in which it is compared to 
the new Alaskan species. 

Occurrence.—The type locality is a small lake 
at Bonmak, on the bank of the River Zeya, in 
the Amur region of southeastern Asiatic U. 8. 
S. R. This is apparently in the area of the head 
waters of the River Zeya, which according to 
Berg (1988) les in the Stanovoy mountain range. 
Smirnov does not give the altitude, but it ap- 
pears to be in the secondary southern chain 
having peaks of relatively low elevation (1,400 
meters). The species was also found in a collection 
from Kjusjur, toward Bulun, which is a little 
south of the delta of the Lena River on the Arctic 
coast. This is in tundra area where the subsoil is 
permanently frozen and superficially at least, 
represents a contrast to the mountain lake habitat 
wf the Amur locality. 

Variation —Smirnoy mentioned no variation 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS 


OF DIAPTOMUS 169 


in the specimens from the type locality, except 
for the division of the claw of the fifth leg in 
some males. In the Lena River specimens, the 
male was wholly typical, but the female was 
much smaller in size, 1.7 mm as opposed to the 
2.4 mm of the Amur specimens, and had only 
one seta instead of two on the thirteenth segment 
of the antennule. The endopod of the fifth leg 
differed in being shorter, and in having its first 
segment longer than the second. No statement 
was made as to whether these variations charac- 
terized a single individual or several. 

Nomenclature—The specific name rylovt was 
used by Charin (1928) for a species of Hemi- 
diaptomus. As pointed out above, this group 
exhibits no differences from other groups of 
Diaptomus sufficiently distinct enough to warrant 
other than subgeneric status; Charin’s species 
should therefore be known as Diaptomus (Hemi- 
diaptomus) rylovi. This necessitates the renaming 
of Smirnov’s species; the name siberiensis is 
proposed as a geographic contrast to that of the 
related Alaskan species. 


Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-29 


Specimens examined.—30 2 , collected in a 
mountain top pool, Eagle Summit, on the Steese 
Highway between Fairbanks and Circle, Alaska; 
elevation 3,880 feet; July 4, 1947. Collector, 
Charles 8. Wilson. 

Types.—In the United States National Mu- 
seum. Holotype male, no. 90711; allotype female, 
no. 90712. 

Description.—Length of preserved specimens, 
middorsal line, female, about 1.65 mm; male, 
about 1.44 mm. 


FEMALE 


Metasome (Fig. 7).—Approximately twice the 
length of the urosome in middorsal line. In 
dorsal view, the greatest width occurring just 
behind the cephalic suture, tapering from there 
to the beginning of the second segment, beyond 
that of rather uniform width to the wings of 
the last segment which are a little expanded. 
The cephalic segment a little longer than seg- 
ments 2-4 combined (proportions approximately 
37:32); its suture distinct; the anterior portion 
roughly triangular in dorsal view. The last seg- 
ment imperfectly separated by a short lateral 
suture, the wings well rounded at the sides, 
reaching posteriorly to about the middle of the 


170 


genital segment; the tips only shghtly drawn 
out, the asymmetry not distinctly pronounced. 
Each side armed with two types of sensilla, that 
of the wing tip a small peglike seta; the other a 
shorter seta set on a small rounded tubercle 
and arising on the inner rounded portion of the 
wing (Fig. 10). The marginal hyaline area of 
the wing (demarcated in Fig. 11 by dotted lines) 
very narrow. 

Urosome (Fig. 11).—All three segments dis- 
tinct. Genital segment not markedly inflated, 
but noticeably asymmetrical; the left side with a 
gently rounding lobe above the middle; the 
anterior half of the right side produced into a 
large backwardly directed lobe, behind which 
laterally is another narrowly rounded area. Each 
side armed on the anterior lobe with a sensillum 
very like that of the inner lobe of the thoracic 
wing. The rest of the urosome symmetrical; the 
third segment longer than the second (proportions 
about 3:2); the caudal rami only a little longer 
than the third segment, their length about twice 
their greatest width; with hairs on the mner 
margins from near the proximal portion to the 
tip; caudal setae normal. 

Most females of the sample were ovigerous; 
the eggs comparatively large and few in number 
(6 to 10). 

Rostral filaments (Fig. 8) attenuated and very 
slender. 

Antennule (Fig. 5)—Comparatively short, 
reaching to near the tips of the thoracic wings. 
The elongate seta of segment 1 (measured from 
its base) reaching to between the end of segment 
11 and the middle of segment 12; very stout 
basally and throughout much of its length, arising 
from a well defined and large cuticular base. 
(In Fig. 5 for convenience in arrangement of 
drawings, this seta has been ‘“‘pulled in” towards 
the body of the antennule; in all the preserved 
specimens, both before and after dissection, it is 
held out more or less perpendicular to the seg- 
ment; the stoutness of the proximal portion sug- 
gests that this is the natural position in life.) 

The number of setae on segments 1-10, 12 
and 20-25 as usual: 3 on segment 2, 2 on 9 and 
22-23, 5 on 25, 1 on the others. Segments 11 
and 13-19 with 2 setae each. Aesthetes normal in 
distribution. 

Macxillined (Fig. 6).—First basal segment with 
all 4 lobes well developed, their setation normal; 
the distal seta of lobes 2-8 much longer than the 
others accompanying it, subequal to each other 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


and to that of lobe 1; the four setae of the ex- 
tended distal lobe all shorter than the longest 
seta of lobes 1-3, the proximal the shortest, the 
others subequal. Second basal segment a little 
shorter than segment 1, its distal seta the longer, 
about equal to the longest setae of lobes 1-3 of 
the second segment. The partially suppressed 
segment bearing two setae. The endopod about 
as long as basal segment 2, of five distinct seg- 
ments, all of its setae slender and setiform, those 
of the inner side all shorter than the 3 terminal 
outer setae of the apical segment. 

Leg 1 (Fig. 4) —The ventral surface of basipod 
2 with a patch of long fine hairs on its outer 
portion just above the exopod, the remainder 
unarmed. Outer spines of exopod segments 1 
and 3 only moderately stout; subequal to one 
another, that of segment 3 being only a little 
longer than that of 1 (approximate proportions 
11:10); both tipped apically with a very slender 
sensory hair; their marginal spinules minute (see 
detail, Fig. 4), hardly distinguishable except at 
very high magnification. The spine of segment 1 
reaching only to about the middle of the second 
segment, bent, with a resultant inner marginal 
notch proximally. 

The elongate terminal spinelike seta of segment 
3 stout, broader basally than the outer spine, 
its Inner margin indented, bearing fine marginal 
hairs below the point of indentation; the outer 
margin, beginning at a corresponding point, 
armed with a very narrow, finely serrate flange 
(see detail, Fig. 4). The other setae of the seg- 
ment all reaching considerably beyond the apex 
of this outer seta (proportional lengths, about 
70:54). The outer margins of the exopod seg- 
ments without hairs. 

Leg 2.—The second segment of the endopod 
lacking a cuticular lobe on the dorsal face. 

Leg 5 (Figs. 1 and 2).—The posterior side of 
the first basal segment tumid; the sensillum short 
and spinelike, mounted on a small tubercle. 
Second basal segment not tumid, considerably 
prolonged on the anteromedial side to the pot 
of attachment of the endopod (Fig. 2); no sensory 
hair apparent, a cuticular depression observed in 
the place of its normal location on one specimen. 

The exopod (to tip of claw) only a little longer 
along its inner margin than the basipod.. The 
inner margin of the first segment roughly about 
two-thirds of the length of the outer (proportions 
25:35); its width about three-fourths of the 
length of the mner and about one-half of that 


S) 


Frias. 1-16.—Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp., female 


lo. 


1-3, Leg 5:1, Left side, posterior view, specimen no. 7; 2, left, anterior view, specimen no. 2; 3, exo- 
pod setae, specimen no. 5. 4, Leg 1, exopod. 5, Antennule, segments 1-20. 6, Manilliped. 7, Dorsal out- 
line of body. 8, Rostral filament. 9, Lateral outline of body. 10, Detail metasome wing and sensilla. 
11, Last metasome segment and urosome. 12-16, Leg 5, endopods: 12, Specimen no. 2, anterior view; 
13, specimen no. 6, posterior; 14, specimen no. 8, posterior; 15, specimen no. 7, posterior; 16, specimen 
no, 3, posterior. 


171 


172 


of the outer margin. The inner margin of the 
second segment (to tip of claw) a little shorter 
than the outer margin of the first segment 
(32:35), about one-third longer than the inner 
margin; its greatest width a little less than one- 
half its length. Claw moderately stout, curving 
inwards on both margins a little above the 
middle, with a distinct notch on the outer margin; 
armed on both sides with 6-10 spinules; some 
specimens showing a faint crosswise line of divi- 
sion at the position of the notch. Lateral seta 
stout and spiniform, unarmed, a little more than 
half the length of the outer margin of the seg- 
ment. 

Third segment (Fig. 3) distinct, short and 
broad, its width almost twice the length of its 
outer margin which is a little longer than the 
inner. The outer seta similar in length and stout- 
ness to that of the second segment, the inner 
more slender and a little longer; both unorna- 
mented. 

The endopods of a pair asymmetrical in length 
and in armature; showing extreme variability 
within the available sample. Usually 2-segmented 
and shorter than the first exopod segment; un- 
armed terminally or with a short spiniform seta. 

Variation in leg 5—Measurements of eight 
specimens showed slight differences in the pro- 
portional lengths and widths of the exopod. The 
greater number attained that shown in Fig. 1, 
in which the inner margin of exopod 2 (to tip 
of claw) is subequal to the outer margin of the 
first segment and about one-third longer than 
the inner. Two specimens had the inner margin 
of segment 2 proportionally a little shorter (Fig. 
2), and in one specimen they were a little longer, 
approaching D. siberiensis. 

The widths of exopod 1 and 2 in diaptomids 
are never precisely measurable, but even with 
allowances made for the differences in position 
and flattening of the mounted appendages by 
the. cover slip, it is apparent that the specimens 
with the shorter claws (the inner margin of 
exopod 2) are also proportionally broader in 
both segments 1 and 2. 

So far as could be judged, no significant differ- 
ence was apparent in the relative length and 
width of the third exopod segment. There is 
some slight difference in the proportional strength 
of the setae from specimen to specimen, but the 
relation of the two to each other is rather con- 
stant. 

The endopod is extremely variable, differing 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


in each of the specimens studied. The differences 
are shown in Figs. 12 to 16, and in Table 1, 
where the total length is also compared to the 
length of the inner margin of the exopod. Of 
the eight examined, four have a terminal spini- 
form seta; one of these differs from the others in 
having in addition a small abortive seta (Fig. 
12). The endopods also show an unusual asym- 
metry. This is evident in the relative lengths of 
the right and left ramus of a pair, the left being 
always the longer; this difference considerable 
in some specimens (Table 1, nos. 4 and 7); 
negligible in others (nos. 1 and 8). The asym- 
metry is further expressed in the relative lengths 
of the terminal setae, that of one side always 
longer than that of the other (Figs. 13 and 15). 
The spinule pattern of the terminal portions also 
differs (Figs. 12 and 16). 

Variability in the endopod of the female in 
Diaptomus is not at all rare, but it is more com- 
monly expressed in differences in segmentation, 
and small differences in proportional length of 
the endopod to the exopod. In subgenera in 
which 2 setae are normally present, one may 
sometimes be lacking. In general, the endopod 
is much more variable in the males of the genus, 
but in this species the opposite is true. As noted 
above, Smirnov found a geographical variation 
in the female of D. siberiensis. We do not, of 
course, know how variable that species is, as he 
gives no indication of whether he found the 
condition illustrated in Fig. 15 (Smirnoy, 1931) 
to be true of one or several specimens. Actual 
comparisons between the two species as regards 
this variability is therefore not now possible. 

The asymmetry of the endopod, as of the rest 
of the appendage, is an invariable rule in the 
male diaptomid, but it is usually not expressed 
in the other sex. Only in recent years has such a 
condition been noted in the fifth legs of females 
of certain south Asiatic groups (Allodiaptomus 
Kiefer, 1936a—b, Mongolodiaptomus Kiefer, 1937, 
1938a) and some South American species (D. 
azevedoi. Wright 1935, D. paulistanus Wright, 
1937). Though this asymmetry appears to be a 
well established character, it may also be that 
in some cases so few specimens of a given species 
have been examined that what is actually anoma- 
lous has been described as normal. For my part, 
I should like to reserve judgment on the condition 
in D. alaskaensis until more individuals from 
both the type and other localities in which it 
may occur are available for study. 


May 1951 


MALE 


Metasome-—About one and a half times the 
length of the urosome. More slender than the 
female, the greatest width in dorsal view occur- 
ring at the middle of the cephalic segment, from 
there the whole body tapering gradually to the 
terminal part. The anterior portion of the cephalic 
segment somewhat narrowed, the rather broad 
triangular appearance of the female only in- 
distinctly suggested. The last segment separated, 
its lateral tips not drawn out, but asymmetrical 
(Fig. 21), the left side straight, the right angular, 
its distal half directed inwards; each side armed 
at the lateral tip with a single sensillum, very 
small and spiniform, mounted on a tubercle 
having rather straight sides (Fig. 20), the tubercle 
of the right a little larger than that of the left 
side of the segment. The hyaline area as demar- 
cated in Fig. 20. 

Urosome (Fig. 21).—Not conspicuously asym- 
metrical. The genital segment with the right side 
a little inflated and irregular in outline; the left 
side with the lateral st conspicuous, the back- 
wardly produced proximal lobe not covering it; 
neither side with apparent sensillum. Segment 4 
a little longer on the right than the left side, the 
other segments symmetrical. Caudal rami nor- 
mal, with the inner margins hairy. 

Rostral filaments ——Relatively as long as those 
of the female, but a little stouter throughout 
most of their length. 

Antennule—The right reaching to the end of 
the second urosomal segment, the left a little 
shorter; both relatively longer than those of the 
female. The left (Fig. 17) differing also from 
that of the female in having the seta of segment 
1 not so enlarged or lengthened; stretched out it 
reaches from its base only to about the middle of 
the fourth segment. Setae of the second segment 
also unlike those of the female. The setal pattern 
differmg in that only segments 11, 16 and 19 
of the midportion of the antennule have 2 setae; 
the others with oné each. In addition to that of 
segment 1, rather long setae found on segments 
7, 9, and 14. Those of 7 and 9 subequal and a 
little longer than those of 1 and 14 which are also 
subequal to each other. The approximate pro- 
portions of these setae to one another are: 
segment 7—55 


segment 9—54 


segment 1—41l 
segment 14—40 


Aesthetes of normal distribution as in female. 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS OF DIAPTOMUS 


173 


The right antennule with segments 14-16 con- 
spicuously swollen (Fig. 18). Spines of 8 and 12 
not enlarged; those of segments 10-11 and 13 
very stout; that of 10 not as long as the width of 
its segment; that of 11 longer, reaching to the 
middle of segment 13; that of 13 strongly bent 
distad, incompletely demarcated from the seg- 
ment, a little stouter but scarcely longer than 
that of 11, reaching to the middle of segment 
14; the tips of all 3 spines dissected as indicated 
in figure 19. Segments 15-16 each with short 
cuticular processes of similar size; modified setae, 
with subterminal lateral tongue-like processes 
(Fig. 18), accompanying them and the depressed 
process of segment 17, all subequal to one another. 
Antepenultimate segment without process or 
lamella. Setae of terminal segment all weakly 
developed. 

Maxilliped and leg 7 as in female. Leg 2 also 
lacking a cuticular lobe on the dorsal face of the 
second segment of the endopod. 

Leg 5 (Figs. 22-23) —The left leg a little more 
slender than that of the right side; reaching 
almost to the end of its second exopod segment. 

Right leg: The outer portion of the first basal 
segment very tumid, overhanging the second 
segment considerably on the postero-lateral side; 
the inner side also expanded with a large distally 
directed hyaline lamella on the anterior face 
(Fig. 22); the sensillum a seta without apparent 
tubercular base, in a distal medial position on 
the dorsal side. The outer margin of the second 


TABLE 1.—CoMPARISON OF THE ENpDopops or Lee 5 In E1aut 


PARATYPE FEMALES OF DIAPTOMUS ALASKAENSIS 


Right endopod Left endopod 
Exo- 
Speci- |pod 1 “a 
gen Inner men Naas Asta | 25 
o: mai lenath pas Armature jenethl 26 Armature 
ments a2” 
Z | 
| 
1 78 39u 2 Spinules 42u | 2 | Spinules 
Ol e75)0 45 2 | 2setae+ | 57 2 | 2 setae + 
spi- | spi- 
nules | nules 
3 81 45 1 None 57 2 | Spinules 
4 81 42 2 Spinules 60 2 | Spinules 
5 75 36 2 None 45 2 Spinules 
6 75 | 54 2 |1seta+] 66 2 | 1 seta + 
spi- | spl- 
nules nules 
7 69 42 2 | 1 seta + 57 2 1 seta + 
| spi- spi- 
nules nules 
8 60 42 1 Terminal | 45 1 Terminal 
hairs hairs 


174 


basal segment rounded, the hair at the distal 
fourth; the inner margin a little longer than the 
outer, prolonged a little to the point of attach- 
ment of the endopod; the medial portion some- 
what expanded and having attached to its pos- 
terior face a hyaline membranous lamella that 
bulges upward. 

Exopod (exclusive of claw) subequal in length 
to the basipod. The first segment having the 
length of its outer margin greater than that of 
the inner (proportions about 27:17) and about 
equal to its greatest width; ending in a distally 
directed, rounded lobe; on the posterior face, 
near the extreme distal margin, two small, rather 
heavily chitinized lamellae (Fig. 24), that near 
the outer edge V-shaped, the other having a 
thick, pointed edge that is produced a little be- 
yond the inner distal corner of the segment and 
extended more or less toward the other as a bar. 
The second segment with both margins nearly 
straight; the inner a little less than twice the 
greatest width (relative proportions 40:25); the 
outer curving inwardly at the point of attach- 
ment of the lateral spine; the inner distal edge 
membranous and somewhat crenulated. This seg- 
ment bearing the characteristically rounded, 
small, heavy lamella on the proximal inner edge 
of the posterior side; somewhat distad to this 
and very near the margin, a minute and thin 
cuticular spine. Lateral spine near the terminus 
of the segment, stout and long, a little longer 
than the outer margin of the segment above its 
base, coarsely dentate on its inner edge. Claw 
very long, its length about equal to that of the 
ramus, strongly curved beyond its middle, en- 
larged at its base, with a small tubercle on the 
anterior side (Fig. 22), dentate below this bulbous 
enlargement to near the tip; in some specimens a 
fine division into two parts noticeable near the 
middle of the claw. 

Endopod a little shorter than the inner margin 
of the first segment of the exopod; 2-seemented, 
the first broadened basally and only about half 
the length of the distal segment. 

Left leg: The first basal segment not expanded 
on the outer margin, but extended inwardly to a 
well rounded lamelliform edge; sensillum a mi- 
nute, curved spinule, mounted on a small tubercle. 
The second segment having its outer margin 
shorter than the mner, concave at its center; 
the sensory hair at the distal fifth; the imner 
distal margin considerably prolonged medially 
to the point of attachment of the endopod; a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


distinct jog in its margin just in front of the 
middle. 

Exopod narrowed to about half the width of 
the basipod, its length along the outer margin 
somewhat less (about one-sixth). The first seg- 
ment about two-thirds of the total length, pro- 
vided on its anterior inner side (Fig. 25) with 
a narrow flattened pad armed with very short 
fine hairs. Both pads of the distal segment in a 
medial position, the proximal the more tumid, 
bulging a little on the anterior side with a nar- 
rowed portion carried across the proximal part 
of the segment so that it appears to fit tightly 
into the segmental suture (Fig. 26); on the pos- 
terior side only a small lengthwise portion of 
the pad visible (Figs. 27-28); armed with fine 
hairs that are longer than those of the pad of 
the first segment. The distal pad reduced in 
breadth, largely postero-medial in position, dis- 
tally not reaching to the base of the terminal 
process; its apical portion sagging somewhat and 
forming a notch with the main body of the seg- 
ment, as visible in posterior profile (Fig. 27); 
pad set with very short, stout hairs. On the mar- 
gin of the segment between the apex of the pad 
and the inner base of the terminal process there 
may be 1-3 minute spinules, but these not always 
present. 

The processes of the distal segment closely 
set (Fig. 29). The digitiform distal process de- 
marcated from the segment, its length a little 
less than one-third that of the outer margin of 
the segment; very broad throughout most of its 
length, but its tip slightly drawn out; its mner 
margin without teeth. The proximal process spini- 
form, curving toward the terminal process and 
reaching to its apex or a very little beyond it; 
attached on the anterior side of the segment, 
distally directed; a little enlarged basally, the 
width at its middle about one-third that of the 
distal process; with coarse teeth on its imner 
margin, and a similar row on the posterior side 
near its outer edge. 

Endopod reaching a little beyond the first 
exopod segment, 2-segmented, the distal seg- 
ment about one-third the length of the other, 
with a few fine hairs on the apex. 


COMPARISON OF D. SIBERIENSIS 
AND D. ALASKAENSIS 


Smirnoy’s description of D. siberiensis is 
precise and detailed so that a fairly exact 
comparison of the two species can be made. 


vou. 41, No. 5 


Zo 


Fiaes. 17-29.—Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp., male 
17, Left antennule, segments 1-20. 18, Right antennule, segments 8-17, with detail of modified seta. 
19, Right antennule, segment 13. 20, Detail, left metasome wing. 21, Last metasome segment and uro- 
some. 22-29, Leg 5: 22, Anterior view; 28, posterior view; 24, detail lamellae, right exopod; 25, left exo- 
pod and endopod, anterior; 26, detail exopod 2, anteromedial view; 27, exopod 2, posterior; 28, exopod 
2, posteromedial view; 29, exopod 2, detail of processes, posterior view. 


175 


176 


He did not describe the maxilliped or leg 1, 
and the characters of these appendages 
given in the subgeneric diagnosis are from D. 
alaskaensis. No basic differences can be ex- 
pected to occur in two such closely related 
species, so that only knowledge of minor 
specific differences is lacking for these 
appendages. 

The resemblance between the two species 
is great. They appear to have the same 
general body form; the antennules of the 
females are alike; there is no apparent 
difference in the right antennules of the 
males, though those of the left side differ in 
the setation of some segments. Comparison 
of the fifth legs of the females is difficult 
because of the great variability found in 
certain characters of D. alaskaensis, and 
because it cannot be told whether or not 
those of D. siberiensis are also extremely 
variable. The form of the appendage is 
similar in the two species, and the setae of 
the second and third segments of the exopod 
are alike; certain differences which may be 
well defined and stable are discussed below. 
The male fifth legs are strikingly similar in 
general appearance, in the relative lengths 
of the two rami, and of the claw and lateral 
spine of the right exopod, in the form of the 
lamellae of the right leg, and in the arrange- 
ment and form of the pads of the left exopod. 
Careful observation shows some well-defined 
differences which coupled with the setation 
of the left antennule, were constant in the 
available sample of D. alaskaensis. Smirnov 
found that the characters of the male of D. 
sibervensis did not vary geographically, and 
this makes it appear that the males are not 
subject to the same variation that affects the 
females of the subgenus. 

The two species have been herein separated 
on the basis of the following important 
differences which appear to be characters of 
stability, and are apparently carefully de- 
scribed by Smirnov for D. szberiensis, so that 
comparison is possible: 


Rostral filaments short and stout in siberiensis; 
slender and attenuated in alaskaensis. 

Left antennule of male with 2 setae on segments 
11 and 18 in svberiensis; with 2 setae on segments 
11, 16 and 19 in alaskaensis. 

Leg 2 with a cuticular lappet on segment 2 of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 5 


the endopod of the male in siberiensis; lacking 
in both sexes in alaskaensis. 

Urosome of female having the genital segment 
in stberiensis apparently less produced on the 
right side than that of alaskaensis and with seg- 
ments 2 and 3 equal in length; in alaskaensis 
segment 2 is much shorter than segment 3. 

Urosome of male in siberiensis is wholly sym- 
metrical; in alaskaensis segments 1 and 4 are a 
little asymmetrical. 

Leg 5 of female has two measurable characters 
that appear to vary but little in alaskaensis and 
are sufficiently different from siberiensis, as shown 
by Smirnov’s drawing (1931, fig. 15) to permit 
relative comparison and separation of the two 
species. In svberiensis the inner margin of the 
second exopod segment (including the “claw’’) 
is apparently longer than the outer margin of 
the first segment; in alaskaensis it was usually 
found to be shorter. A more important difference 
lies in the third exopod segment, which, if cor- 
rectly delineated by Smirnov, is as wide as it is 
long in stberiensis; its width in alaskaensis is 
about twice its length. Other differences which 
may or may not be real, lie in the greater slender- 
ness of the appendage in szberiensis, the larger 
number of spinules on the “claw”, the lack of 
much variability in the endopod, absence of 
asymmetry in the length and armature of a 
pair, and the stouter development of its single, 
apical seta. 

Leg 5 of male. Right side: In siberiensis the 
first exopod segment has its outer margin only a 
little longer than its inner and greater than its 
width; in alaskaensis it is considerably longer 
than that of the inner and equal to its width; 
the armature of this segment appears to be very 
similar in form, but the lamellae of siberiensis 
are both placed above the distal margin of the 
segment, while those of alaskaensis are very close 
to it, so that of the inner edge is produced beyond 
the corner of the segment. The second exopod 
segment of siberiensis lacks a cuticular spine 
which is present in alaskaensis. Left side: In 
siberiensis the proximal process of the terminal 
segment reaches considerably beyond the end of 
the distal process; in alaskaensis this process 
reaches to the end of the distal process, or at 
most a very little beyond it; the distal process of 
siberiensis is armed on the inner margin with a 
few spinules; that of alaskaensis is unarmed. The 
distal pad of siberiensis appears to be a little 
more developed than that of alaskaensis, and is 
armed with slender instead of thick, short hairs. 


May 1951 


DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN NORDODIAPTOMUS 
AND NEUTRODIAPTOMUS 


Ttiefer (1932) placed D. szberzensis in a list 
of species that he could not assign to any of 
his newly erected genera; in 1938 he referred 
it to Neutrodiaptomus. It is therefore neces- 
sary to compare the characters of this sub- 
genus with Nordodiaptomus. 


In establishing Neutrodiaptemus in 1937, Kie- 
fer included the species twmidus Kiefer, pachy- 
poditus Rylov, amurensis Rylov, and mariadvigae 
Brehm. To these he added (1938a) incongruens 
Poppe, siberiensis (as D. rylovi Smirnov), and 
lobatus Lilljeborg, the synonymy of the latter 
with incongruens appearing to him to be an un- 
certain matter. Hu (1943) described a new species 
alatus. 

Of these species, D. svberiensis and D. mari- 
advigae appear to differ sharply from the con- 
sistently developed characters that hold the 
others together. D. siberiensis has been referred 
above to the new subgenus Nordodiaptomus. D. 
mariadvigae is apparently closely related to, if 
not conspecific with, the species hsichowensis 
recently described by Hsaio (1950). This species 
occurs in Yunnan, the same Chinese province 
in which Brehm’s collection was made (Brehm, 
1921, 1930). Hsaio considers that the lack of 
terminal setae on the endopod of the fifth leg 
of the female and the ‘‘pincerlike”’ structure of 
the processes of the left male fifth leg, though 
reduced in length, indicate relationship to Arcto- 
diaptomus. He therefore made his new species 
the type of a subgenus Pararctodiaptomus. In 
the definition of Diaptomus used here, Arcto- 
diaptomus is considered as a subgenus; the status 
of the various subgroups that have been proposed 
for it can be evaluated only when the whole of 
this subgenus is reinvestigated. It is possible that 
Pararctodiaptomus may be found to be of separate 
subgeneric status within the genus Diaptomus. 
This is particularly so if the distal pad of the 
male left fifth exopod is as well developed as is 
suggested by Hsaio’s illustration; its loss or 
extreme reduction is highly characteristic of Arc- 
todiaptomus. 

So far as it is possible to ascertain from pub- 
lished descriptions, the remaining species of 
Neutrodiaptomus agree with one another very 
closely in several significant characters. From 
these, the species of Nordodiaptomus depart rather 
noticeably. Though agreeing in certain patterns, 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS 


OF DIAPTOMUS 177 
these two subgenera are naturally set apart by 
these differences. A brief comparison makes this 
clear. 

The female fifth leg of Neutrodiaptomus has 
two short, equally developed setae on the termi- 
nus of the endopod; the pattern of the setae of 
exopod segments 2 and 3, identical in all the 
species, consists of a minute seta on 2, while on 
3 there are a similar small outer and a much 
longer inner seta. Nordodiaptomus with the single 
spinelike seta of the endopod, and the stout, 
subequal setae of the exopod, is in sharp contrast. 
Indeed, these differences are among the most 
significant in separating the two groups, par- 
ticularly the structure of the exopod setae which 
in Nordodiaptomus are of uncommon form for 
the whole genus. 

The male right antennule has the pattern of 
segments 13-15 similar in both groups, but 
the spines of 10 and 11 are very short in 
Neutrodiaptomus, while they are of considerable 
stoutness in Nordodiaptomus; all species of Neutro- 
diaptomus have a hyaline lamella on the ante- 
penultimate segment, in Nordodiaptomus this seg- 
ment is unarmed. While these are characters that 
may vary within a group of related species, ap- 
parently their nonvariability may also distinguish 
a subgenus. This last seems especially true in 
Neutrodiaptomus; in our present knowledge there 
are no intermediate forms between it and Nordo- 
diaptomus. 

In the male right fifth leg of Neutrodiaptomus, 
the apical claw is never longer than the exopod, 
and the lateral spine, located at the proximal to 
the distal third, is usually less than the width 
of its segment. Both are of exceptional stoutness 
and length in Nordodiaptomus. 

Any comparison between the patterns of the 
terminal segment of the left exopods is not wholly 
satisfactory because of the incompleteness of 
the descriptions of Neutrodiaptomus. The only 
enlarged drawings in literature are those of fwm- 
dus (Kiefer, 1938a) and amurensis (Rylov, 1930), 
and of these only twmidus is well enough des- 
eribed verbally to permit real comparison. The 
similarities of the two groups are: both pads are 
well defined and subequal to one another; the 
terminal process is short and digitiform; the 
proximal process is subterminal in position and 
about equal to or reaching a little beyond the 
distal. The differences between the two groups 
are more difficult to define; where it is possible 
to compare, the following are suggested. 


178 


The proximal pad in Nordodiaptomus is not 
merely a medially bulging structure, but is car- 
ried well across the anterior side of the segment 
and its shape is thus distinctly asymmetrical; it 
appears as a simple, medially placed pad in 
Neutrodiaptomus. The distal pad is conspicuously 
armed with slender to short, stout hairs in Nordo- 
diaptomus; in Neutrodiaptomus there may be 
little or no armature of this pad. Kiefer (1938a) 
has described that of twmidus as a “lobus’’ and 
shows no ornamentation, as is also true of Rylov’s 
(1930) figure of amurensis. 

The proximal process of Nordodiaptomus is 
stout and spiniform; Smirnov describes that of 
siberiensis as a “‘spine’’ and my observations in 
alaskaensis confirm this. Kiefer speaks of those 
of tumidus and pachypoditus as “setae” and his 
illustrations picture this process as exceedingly 
slender. The difference between seta and spine 
is undoubtedly one of degree and is not always 
easy to determine. In this case it may merely be 
one of interpretation. The degree of stoutness 
and the form of this process, however, distin- 
guishes other subgenera of Diaptomus, and it is 
necessary in the absence of any other evidence, 
- to consider that these two groups are separable 
by the spiniform character of this process in 
Nordodiaptomus as opposed to its setiform de- 
velopment in Neutrodiaptomus. 

It is unfortunate that for the species of Neutro- 
diaptomus no information is available concerning 
the highly important details of the maxilliped, 
the first leg, the cuticular process of the endopod 
of the second leg, the setation of the female 
antennule and its comparison to the male left 
antennule. Until taxonomists also include in- 
formation about these points in their descriptions 
of diaptomid copepods, we will not be able to 
arrive at any satisfactory comparison of species 
or of subgenera. My study of North American 
species suggests that the development of the 
maxilliped, particularly of the setae of the endo- 
pod, the characters of the first leg, the presence 
or absence of Schmeil’s organ on the endopod of 
the second leg, and the setation of the female 
antennule, are often as characteristic of sub- 
genera as the modifications of the left exopod of 
the male fifth leg or the termimal setae of the 
endopod of the female fifth leg. They are in any 
case a part of the whole picture, and must be 
considered before any comprehensive evaluation 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


of subgeneric or generic characters can be made. 

In addition to its distinctions from Neutro- 
diaptomus, Nordodiaptomus departs in some char- 
acters from the usual condition found in Diapto- 
mus. One such instance is that Schmeil’s organ 
may be either present or absent, and interestingly 
is exhibited as a case of sexual dimorphism in one 
species. The numerical difference in setation of 
the antennules of the female and that of the 
left side of the male is the only one known to me 
in literature or in fact; investigation may show 
it to be more common than suspected. The 
contrast in the size of the setae of the first and 
second segments is not confined to Nordodiapto- 
mus; Smirnov (1928) has noted the same sexual 
dimorphism in D. (Arctodiaptomus) dentifer which 
has a similarly elongate seta on segment 1 of 
the female. The structure of the exopod setae of 
the female fifth leg in Neutrodiaptomus is common 
throughout the genus; that of Nordodiaptomus, 
as suggested, is rather unusual. The asymmetry 
of the endopod of Nordodiaptomus alaskaensis 
is likewise a rare condition, impossible now to 
evaluate. 

It thus appears that there occur in the two 
species of Nordodiaptomus, characters that differ 
naturally from consistently developed structures 
in Neutrodiaptomus, and in addition, that they 
have certain distinctive features which set them 
apart from other subgenera of Diaptomus. The 
inclusion of the two species in Neutrodiaptomus 
could be only provisional and would make the 
definition of that subgenus ambiguous in many 
parts. It seems best in my judgment to delimit 
the two groups as has been done herein. 

It is probable that these two subgenera may 
be safely assumed to be closely related. This 
cannot now be proved, however, due to our lack 
of complete knowledge of some structures of 
Neutrodiaptomus, and our present inability to 
evaluate characters as subgeneric or otherwise. 

The species of Neutrodiaptomus extend from 
subarctic into southeastern Asia. Nordodiaptomus 
is in our present knowledge limited to Arctic and 
subarctic regions of Asia and North America. 
The discovery of an Alaskan species closely re- 
lated to one from the Asiatic U. 8. S. R. adds 
to the growing list of examples that disprove the 
old concept that North American diaptomids are 
distinct from those of Eurasia. It is to be expected 
that further study of Alaskan collections will 
increase the number. 


May 1951 DURBIN 


LITERATURE CITED 


Bere, L.S8. Natural regions of the U.S.S.R., ed. 2. 
1938. (Translation by Olga Adler Titelbaum, 
1950.) 

BreuM, VINCENZ. Diagnosen neue Entomostraken. 
I. Teil. Anz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 58: 194-196. 
1921. 

. Uber stidasiatische Diaptomiden. Arch. fiir 
Hydrobiol. 22: 140-161, 14 figs., 1 map. 1930. 

Carin, N. N. Uber eine neue Hemidiaptomus-Art 
aus dem Gouvernment Woronesch. Zool. Anz. 
76: 323-328, 6 figs. 1928. 

Hsrao, SipNey C. Copepods from Lake Erh Hai, 
China. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 100: 161-200, 
figs. 20-30. 1950. 

Hu, Y. T. Notes on fresh-water copepods from 
Pehpet, Szechwan. Sinensia 14: 115-128, figs. 
A-C. 1948. 

KGErer, Frrepricu. Versuch eines systems der 
Diaptomiden (Copepoda Calanoida).- Zool. 
Jahrb. (Abt. Syst.) 63: 451-520, 88 figs. 1932. 

. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 

poda). Zool. Anz. 113: 136-142, 11 figs. 1936a. 

. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 
poda). III. Zool. Anz. 118: 321-325, 17 figs. 
1936b. 

———. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 
poda). IV. Zool. Anz. 114: 77-82, 14 figs. 1936c. 

. Uber die systematick der stidamerikanischen 

Diaptomiden (Crustacea Copepoda). Zool. Anz. 

116: 194-200. 1936d. 

. Stisswassercopepoden aus Ostasien. IT. Newe 

Diaptomiden und Cyclopiden von der Insel 

Formosa. Zool. Anz. 119: 58-64, 17 figs. 1937. 

Freilebende Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea 

Copepoda) von Formosa. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. 

Japan. 8: 35-73, 38 figs. 1938a. 


AND HONESS: 


NEW ROUNDWORM 179 

———.. Freilebende Sirisswassercopepoden von den 
Nordkurilen. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. Japan. 8: 
75-94, 30 figs. 1938b. 

Lieut, 8S. F. New subgenera and species of diapto- 
mid copepods from the inland waters of Cali- 
fornia and Nevada. Univ. California Publ. 
Zool. 43: 67-78, 23 figs. 1938. 

———. New American subgenera of Diaptomas 
Westwood (Copepoda, Calanoida). Trans. 
Amer. Mier. Soc. 58: 473-484, 24 figs. 1939. 

Ryuov, W. M. The fresh-water calanoids of the 
U. S. S. R. In: “Keys to Determination of 
Fresh-water Organisms of the U. S. S. R.: 
A, Fresh-Water Fauna.: Pt. I’: 1-288, 88 
figs. 1930. 

Sars, GEorG Ossian. On the Crustacean fauna of 
Central Asia. Pt. IIT. Copepoda and Ostracoda. 
Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Imper. Sci. St.-Peters- 
bourg 8: 195-232, pls. 9-16. 1903. 

Smirnov, S. 8S. Uber eine neue Diaptomus-Art 
(Copepoda) aus Zentralrussland. Zool. Anz. 
78: 27-34, 11 figs. 1928. 

——.. Sur une espéce nouvelle du genre Diaptomus 
Westw. (Crustacea, Copepoda), provenant de la 
region de ’v Amour. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 
U.S. 5S. R. for 1930: 79-82, 1 fig. 1930. 

Ein Beitrag zur Copepoden-Fauna des 
Amur-Gebietes. Arch. fiir Hydrobiol. 23: 618- 
638, 21 figs. 1931. 

WriGcut, STittman. Three new species of Diapto- 
mus from northeast Brazil. Ann. Acad. Brasil 
Sei. 7: 213-233, pls. 1-4. 1935. 

. A review of some species of Diaptomus from 

Sdo Paulo. Ann. Acad. Brasil Sci. 9: 65-82, 

pl. 1-3. 1987. 


HELMINTHOLOGY.—A new roundworm, Nematodirus rufaevastitatis (Nema- 
toda: Trichostrongylidae) from domestic sheep, Ovis aries, in Wyoming. CHARLES 
G. Durpin, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry, and Rauew F. Honuss, Uni- 
versity of Wyoming. (Communicated by E. W. Price.) 


The nematodes described in this paper 
were collected by one of the writers (R. F. H.) 
from domestic sheep in the area of the Red 
Desert, Wyo., and western Wyoming during 
1948 and 1949. The specimens were for- 
warded for identification to the Zoological 
Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. A 
study of them by the senior writer shows 
that they belong to the genus Nematodirus. 
They differ, however, from the known species 
of the genus in certain characters and they 
are, therefore, described as new. 


Nematodirus rufaevastitatis, n. sp. 


Description. —Maun: 11.5 to 15.8 mm long and 
about 0.1 mm wide just anterior to the bursa. 
Esophagus 0.430 to 0.500 mm long and about 


0.030 to 0.040 mm wide at its base. Head 0.025 
to 0.030 mm wide, as measured with the cuticle 
slightly inflated (Fig. 1, 4). Spicules 1.0 to 1.15 
mm long and united for about the posterior two- 
thirds of their total length; the tips have a slight 
membranous inflation (Fig. 1, B). The bursa 
consists of two large lateral lobes and a dorsal 
lobe which is indicated only by a slight indenta- 
tion of the margin of the bursa lateral to the dor- 
sal ray. The length of the bursa from its base to 
tip is 0.25 to 0.84 mm. Each lateral lobe of bursa 
is supported by six rays, two ventral, three lat- 
eral, and one externodorsal (Fig. 1, C, D). The 
two ventral rays arise from a common trunk and 
are long and slender. The three lateral rays like- 
wise arise from a common trunk and are also 
long and slender. The mediolateral and postero- 


180 


lateral rays are close together. The externo- 
lateral branch curves ventrally away from the 
other two branches. The two dorsal rays arise 
separately. The externodorsal ray is long and 
very slender when compared with the other rays 
of the bursa. The dorsal ray is shorter and 
thicker than the externodorsal ray; the tip of 
the dorsal ray is not bifid as in the other de- 
scribed species of the genus. 

Female: Unknown. 

Host: Ovis aries. 

Location: Small intestine. 

Distribution: Wyoming, U.S.A. 

Specimens: U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 46922 
(type) and 46921 (paratypes). 

This species closely resembles NV. spathiger in 
the termination of the spicules (Fig. 1, B). It 
differs, so far as the writers are aware, from that 


ll) 


Fie. 1.—Nematodirus rufaevastitatis, n. sp.: 
A, Head; B, spicules; C, D, lateral lobes of bursa. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 5 


species and from all others of the genus Nemato- 
dirus occurring in ruminants by the size of the 
bursa and the nonbifid tip of the dorsal ray. 
These species may be differentiated by the fol- 
owing key. 


KEY TO MALES OF THE SPECIES OF NEMATODIRUS 
IN RUMINANTS 


1. Terminal portions of dorsal rays undivided 
N. rufaevastitatis, n. sp. 
Terminal portions of dorsal rays divided.....2 
2. Terminal portion of spicules bent 
N. tarandi Hadwen 
Terminal portion of spicules straight........3 
3. Small gubernaculum present 
N. uricht Cameron 


Gubermaculum absentia e- sane eee 4 

4. Mediolateral and posterolateral rays well sepa- 
PAteC rene ae ee ae N. roscidus Railliet 
Mediolateral and posterolateral rays close to- 
gether no... hs os ee ee 5 

5. Spicules differing in length, terminal portion 
‘twistedie Mi pes tees N. abnormalis May 
Spicules equal in length, terminal portion 
Straight. e...0%...isienss Dane eee: 6 


6. Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules spatulate..... N. spathiger (Railliet) 
Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules sharply pointed................... a 

. Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules 0.1 mm long..... N. helvetianus May 
Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules 0.06 to 0.08 mm in length......... 8 

8. Terminal portion of each spicule divided into 
two rodlike structures united at the tips 

N. otratianus Rajewskaja 

Terminal portion of each spicule not divided 
N. filicollis (Rudolphi) 


“I 


REFERENCES 


Rasewskasa, 8. A. Zur Charakteristik der Nema- 
toden der Gattung Nematodirus Ransom 1907 
(Versuch einer Monographischen Bearbeitung). 
Zeitschr. Infektionskr ...Haustiere Berlin 
40 (2-3): 112-136. 1931. 

Ransom, B. H. The nematodes parasitic in the ali- 
mentary tract of cattle, sheep, and other rumi- 
nants. U.S. Dept. Agr. B.A.I. Bull. 127. 1911. 

Price, E. W. A new nematode, Nematodirus anti- 
locaprae, from the prong-horn antelope, with 
a key to the species of Nematodirus. Proc. 
U.S. Nat. Mus. 71 (art. 22): 1-4, pl. 1, figs. 
1-4. 1927. 

Travassos, L. Contribuicées para o conbecimento 
da fauna helmintolojica brasileira. XIII: En- 
saio Monografico do familia Trichostrongylidae 
Leiper, 1909. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 13 
Q): 1-135. 1921. 

. Revisdo do familia Trichostrongylidae Lei- 

per, 1912. Monogr. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 512 

pp., pls. 1937. 


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* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 
Puysics.—The limitations of the principle of superposition: I]. Pau 
ErHNOLOGY.—Some medical beliefs and practices of the contemporary 
Iroquois Longhouses of the Six Nations Reserve. Marcrn Riovux.. 


GroLtocy.—Present Cretaceous stratigraphic nomenclature of northern 
Alaska. GEORGE Gryc, W. W. Patton, JR., AND T. G. PAYNE.... 


Zootocy.—A new subgenus of Diaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida), in- 
cluding an Asiatic species and a new species from Alaska. MuiLpREpD 
STRATTON WILSON |e 005 b.2 00 .ale ee cee cane ot clere «eee ad er 


HELMINTHOLOGy.—A new roundworm, Nematodirus rufaevastitatis (Ne- 


matoda: Trichostrongylidae), from domestic sheep, Ovis aries, in Wy- 
oming. CHARLES G. DuRBIN AND Rap F. Honmss........... 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


149 


152 


159 


168 


JUNE 1951 No. 6 


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VoLtuME 41 


June 1951 


No. 6 


ETHNOLOGY .—Was the California condor known to the Blackfoot Indians? CuaupE 
E. ScHAEFFER, Museum of the Plains Indian, Browning, Mont. (Communi- 


cated by John C. Ewers.) 


Elderly Blackfoot Indians, in recounting 
the faunal lore of a now vanished past, some- 
times refer to an immense bird, which visited 
the eastern foothills and adjacent plains of 
the Montana-Alberta region. Nearly half a 
century has elapsed, at least, since it was 
last sighted in this region. As a result, few 
living Indians claim to have seen the great 
winged creature; most know it only through 
traditions handed down from previous gen- 
erations. Agreement is general among mod- 
ern Blackfoot, however, that it was an 
uncommon, if not rare, migrant to their 
territory. The species, despite the infrequency 
of its appearance, seems to have found a 
niche in native nomenclature, as well as 
mention in their ceremonial rites, folklore, 
and procurement practices. If we have 
evaluated correctly Blackfoot descriptions 
of its appearance and habits, the bird in 
question can scarcely be other than the 
California condor, Gymnogyps californianus 
(Shaw). Although apparently thus known 
to the Blackfoot of an earlier day, the con- 
dor, strangely enough, has eluded the sight 
(and gun) of all but one white observer in 
this area. Accordingly, the wanderings of 
this “greatest of all flying birds of the earth”’ 
so far north of its recognized range have 
largely gone unnoticed by modern orni- 
thologists. It seems advisable, then, to re- 
cord here existing information on the condor 
from Blackfoot oral chronicles, in the hope 
that a new paragraph may thereby be added 
to the wildlife annals of the northwestern 
Plains. 

The possibility of the condor’s movement 
northward into the northwestern margin of 
the Plains was first brought to the writer’s at- 


181 


tention in connection with a study of Black- 
foot ornithology. As part of this inquiry, iden- 
tification of various local bird species was 
established with Indian informants and their 
respective native names recorded (Schaeffer, 
1950). After the terms for the golden eagle 
(pitaw), bald eagle (ksixkikini), and turkey 
vulture (pikokz) were collected, coverage of 
the largest Raptores was deemed complete. 
However, informants volunteered the term 
omaxsapitau, “big pitau,” and proceeded 
to describe the bird’s appearance and habits. 
A new term was thus unexpectedly added 
to the check list of Blackfoot avifauna. In- 
quiries were accordingly instituted among a 
number of the oldest Indians of the Brown- 
ing region, and their knowledge of the topic 
was explored. My sources of information are 
largely Piegan, and the data obtained refer 
primarily to Montana. A few traditions of 
Blood provenience are localized in the 
Calgary-Edmonton section of Alberta. Na- 
tive testimony is presented here essentially 
as it was secured from the Indians. Distor- 
tions of fact arising from what appear to be 
errors of observation or lapses of traditional 
continuity are indicated as such in the text. 

As a background against which to assay 
Blackfoot testimony on the condor, orni- 
thological data on that species’ range and 
incidence to the north are summarized be- 
low. The condor, reduced in numbers! and 

1 According to information based upon research 
by Dr. Carl B. Koford and communicated (11/ 
28/50) to me by Dr. Alden H. Miller, Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, the 
number of surviving wild specimens of the condor 
is estimated at about 60. I am also indebted to 
Dr. Miller for his reading of the first draft of the 
present paper and for pointing out certain dis- 
erepancies in the data insofar as reference to the 
condor is concerned. 


28 1989 


182 


distribution in recent times, is now confined 
to “California west of the Great Basin and 
desert regions, and northwestern Lower 
California.’’ Casually or formerly, the same 
authority (A.O.U. Check-list, p. 62) adds, 
it was reported from southeastern California, 
Oregon, and Washington. It may now be 
nearly if not actually gone from its former 
range in Baja California. In Oregon the 
presence of the condor on the lower Colum- 
bia River is attested by observers from the 
time of Lewis and Clark (1805-06) down 
to that of David Douglas (1825-27). There, 
it came in summer and fall to feed upon the 
spawned-out salmon, which lined the banks 
of the stream. For the State of Washington, 
the range is given as “north irregularly 
(west of Cascades) to northern boundary” 
(Dawson and Bowles, vol. 2, p. 548). A 
specimen was recorded at Fort Vancouver 
in 1827 (Bent, p. 12, citing Fleming). In 
1826 Douglas stated that it was a common 
species as far north as the 49th parallel 
(Macoun and Macoun, p. 239). In southwest 
British Columbia, the Macouns (p. 239) 
characterize the condor as “a rare visitant 
at the mouth of the Fraser River... ap- 
parently attracted by the dead salmon.” 
In 1880 J. Fannin reported seeing two birds 
at Burrard Inlet, while Rhoads, in 1893, 
stated that condors were reported on Lulu 
Island as late as “three or four years ago”’ 
(Bent, p. 12). 

The consensus of ornithologists in re- 
spect to the condor’s status on the Pacific 
coast north of California would seem to 
represent it as an extralimital wanderer in 
the region, particularly after the first quar- 
ter of the last century. Even on the lower 
Columbia, Harris (p. 21) remarks, “there 
is no valid evidence that it was ever an 
abundant species,’ and by the time of 
Townsend’s visit (1834-35) “it was already 
beginning to frequent this northern ex- 
tremity of its range in fewer numbers.”’ 
Similarly, Gabrielson and Jewett (pp. 180- 
181) conclude that the condor, “if ever 
common in this state [Oregon], seems to 
have become rare or almost extinct between 
Douglas’ first visit [1825-27] and the time 
of the Pacific Railway Surveys” (1855-59). 
Farther north, Dawson and Bowles (2, p. 
548) agree that ‘“‘on the whole it appears 
improbable that the California condor was 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ever resident in Washington, certainly not 
within the memory of the white man, and 
that its northern appearances are to be 
regarded solely as the fishing excursions of 
a Southerner.”’ Taverner (p. 115) regards 
the reported occurrences in southwestern 
British Columbia as having an uncertain 
basis. 

Turning now to the eastern limits of the 
condor’s range, Dawson and Bowles (vol. 
2, p. 548) remark that it formerly extended 
to Arizona and Utah. Bent (p. 12), on the 
basis of cave remains, notes that the species 
occurred in Nevada and New Mexico. It is 
recorded also in cave deposits from the 
Chisos Mountains. Certain “dubious’’ rec- 
ords report the condor in 1877 from Fort 
Sanders, southeastern Wyoming, and from 
some point in the mountains of Colorado 
(Harris, p. 46). There are perhaps other 
references from this southeastern area which 
have escaped my attention. 

Farther to the north and more pertinent 
to our study, J. Fannin (p. 89), on Septem- 
ber 10, 1896, observed two fine specimens 
between Calgary, Alberta, and the Rocky 
Mountains. This represents the sole orni- 
thological record of the condor’s presence 
within the purview of the Blackfoot.? Fannin 
admits in his report that he was not aware 
“that this bird was found east of the Rocky 
Mountains, or so far north as the point 
above mentioned.” Later writers, such as 
the Macouns (vol. 2, p. 239), are inclined 
to doubt this occurrence so far east, es- 
pecially since no specimen was collected. 
Although accepting the same student’s sight 
record in southwestern British Columbia, 
Bent (p. 12) omits reference to the Alberta 


2 In this connection an entry from the diary of 
David Douglas (Harris, pp. 19-20), written at 
Fort Vancouver in 1827, may be quoted: ‘‘Ob- 
tained the following information concerning this 
curious bird from Etienne Lucien, one of the 
hunters who has had ample opportunity of observ- 
ng them. ... During the summer they are seen 
in great numbers in the woody parts of the Co- 
lumbia, from the ocean to the mountains of Lewis 
and Clark’s River, from four hundred miles in the 
interior”’ (italics mine). The region referred to here 
presumably is the drainage basin of the upper 
Snake River in present day Idaho. Since the source 
of this information is “the waggish Canadian 
voyageur who imparted to Douglas fantastic and 
highly imaginative misinformation regarding the 
nidification of the condor,” the reference is 
scarcely taken seriously by ornithologists. 


JUNE 1951 


observation. Harris (p. 54) comments that 
the latter “would have been less startling 
had it been reported from this region 
seventy-five years earlier.” And thus the 
case stands from the ornithological view- 
point. 

A brief ornithological description cf the 
condor may be included here, as comparative 
data against which to check Blackfoot ac- 
counts of the omaysapitau. “Length, 4 to 
4+ feet; spread of wings, 9 to 11 feet. Wings, 
long folding beyond end of square tail; 
head and neck, bare; skin, smooth, yellow 
or yellowish-orange and red; plumage, 
sooty-blackish commencing over shoulders 
with a semi-ruff of linear feathers, those 
underneath of similar character but less 
closely defined; the feathers of upper parts 
with browner tips; wings and tail black; 
outer webs of greater wing-coverts and sec- 
ondaries grayish; wing-coverts and outer 
secondaries edged with whitish; wnder wing- 
coverts, pure white; bill, dark brown changing 
gradually to dull reddish on cere; iris, deep 
red; feet, horn with a patch on knees” (Pear- 
son, p. 54). Parenthetically, while literature 
assigns a maximum wing spread of 11 feet 
the largest definite records range from 9 
feet 9 inches to 10 feet. 

We may next turn to the data representa- 
tive of Blackfoot oral sources. The 
omaxsapitau is believed by some Indian 
informants to have visited the Browning 
area as recently as the early 1900’s. Two or 
three very large birds are said to have ap- 
peared on the plains in various parts of the 
reservation about the year 1908. George 
Bull Child, one of those who saw them at the 
time, described the birds as dark in color 
and about 4 feet high. Since they took 
flight when approached closer than several 
hundred yards, he was unable to distinguish 
other salient features. At the time, however, 
older Piegan identified the species by its 
native name and recalled that it had visited 
the region at an earlier period. 

A different version of possibly this same 
occurrence was obtained from Louis Bear 
Child. He stated that about the period 
1907-08 some Gros Ventre Indians of the 
Fort Belknap Reservation, wrote Piegan 
friends that a great bird had been sighted 
in their part of north-central Montana. 
The Gros Ventre, although aware that it 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


183 


was a migrant from the south, were con- 
cerned over the significance of the bird’s 
appearance in their country. The Black- 
foot watched for it that year, but so far as 
Bear Child was aware, no one saw it. The 
following year an earthquake is said to have 
shaken the Fort Belknap region, an event 
which Bear Child, and perhaps the Gros 
Ventre, were inclined to associate with the 
visit of the “‘big eagle.” 

The incident best known to contemporary 
Piegan involving the omaxsapitau is that 
related of the deceased Raven (Hairy Face). 
Raven, or as he is more commonly known 
among bilingual Blackfoot, Big Crow, was 
born on the Blood Reserve in Canada but 
reared on the Montana reservation. Ac- 
counts of his experience vary somewhat in 
detail, but the following version is one told 
by Richard Sanderville (age 82). Big Crow 
and his wife were returning from Old Agency 
to their home on Little Badger Creek. In 
a coulee near the latter place, Big Crow 
noticed a large object some distance off, 
which he at first believed was a cow. Upon 
approaching closer, however, he saw that 
it was an immense, dark-colored bird, with 
a feathered ruff and a bald head. The strange 
creature took wing and flew off to the 
mountains. Sanderville remarked that Big 
Crow was not familiar with the species or 
with its native name. Further, upon hearing 
of his experience later, several of his friends 
are said to have evinced incredulity. The 
year in which this occurrence took place, 
so far as Sanderville could date it, was 1897. 
Thereafter, in accordance with the Black- 
foot year count, the year became known as 
“that in which Big Crow saw the oma- 
xsapitau.” 

Another episode of this character was re- 
called by Sanderville. Mary Jane, daughter 
of the Piegan Red Paint, married a white 
man named Pfemster or Phemister. One 
summer she and her husband moved into 
the Chief Mountain district of what is now 
Glacier National Park to hunt and _ fish. 
While in camp one day they saw four very 
large birds. Two of them appeared to be 
immature, just learning to fly, while the 
others, believed to be the parent birds, 
soared overhead. The observers considered 
that the adult pair had nested (sic) on 
Chief Mountain that summer. From mem- 


184 


ory Sanderville placed the date of this oc- 
currence in 1879. Mary Jane died in 1942 at 
the presumed age of 89. 

Rides at the Door (age 87), one of the few 
surviving Piegan with a record in inter- 
tribal warfare, is said to have seen a “big 
eagle’ while raiding for horses somewhere to 
the south. Handicapped by deafness, this 
aged warrior was unable to supply further 
details of his experience. 

An incident related by Chewing Black 
Bones (age 83) also involved an encounter 
by a group of Piegan raiders with a “big 
eagle.” The narrator’s father, Brocky (Tail 
Feathers Coming Over a Hill), a prominent 
Piegan warrior, was a member of the party. 
Led by Heavy Runner, the warriors set out 
to steal horses from the Crow Indians. They 
had traveled as far as “Bear Creek,” an 
unidentified stream located west of the 
present Crow Reservation in southeastern 
Montana. Heavy Runner, who was in the 
lead, looked up to see a very large bird 
flying directly before them. Its wingspread 
and length of tail, the raiders noted, ex- 
ceeded those of the eagle. The sight was so 
unusual that Heavy Runner immediately 
accepted it as a portent bearing upon the 
success of their venture. Accordingly he 
warned his companions, saying, “I have 
never seen a bird of this kind. Now that it 
has appeared before us, I am afraid. It 
seems to be trying to head us off. The out- 
come of our raid is now in doubt. We had 
better turn back.”’ Most of the party agreed, 
and they and Heavy Runner returned home. 
Of the six who continued on, five were killed 
by the enemy. Since Heavy Runner was 
killed in the Baker Massacre of 1870, the 
date of this raid may be set in the 1860's. 
Chewing Black Bones believed that the 
bird’s appearance upon this occasion and 
others was prophetic of misfortune. In sup- 
port of his contention, he cited the death 
of the five raiders and the extinction of the 
previously mentioned Big Crow’s family 
line. 

Dog Takes a Gun (age 85) was born on 
the Blood Reserve in Alberta but spent 
most of his hfe among the Montana Piegan. 
He recalls his parents’ account of an oma- 
xsapitau sighted near Calgary shortly be- 
fore the time of his birth. The date is to be 
placed in the early 1860’s. Again the great 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


size of the bird was emphasized. While 
feeding, it was said to lean forward so far 
that its breast nearly touched the ground. 
A tailfeather, described as about 2 feet in 
length, was dropped by this particular 
bird in flight and picked up by native ob- 
servers. My informant added that the wing 
of another “big eagle” killed in this region 
equaled, when fully extended, the distance 
from a man’s shoulder across his chest to 
the fingertips of his opposite outstretched 
arm.* 

The next incident involves an encounter 
with the omaysapitaw by an Indian eagle 
trapper, now deceased. It was the practice 
of the Blackfoot, as with other tribes of the 
Northern Plains, to secure the feathers used 
in their costumes and ceremonial equipment 
from the golden eagle taken in concealed 
traps. Briefly, the procedure involved dig- 
ging a shallow pit upon some eminence, 
covering it with brush and grass, and plac- 
ing a stuffed coyote skin on top as bait. As 
the eagle alighted to feed, the hunter con- — 
cealed within the pit, seized both legs of the 
bird, drew it down towards him, and dis- 
patched it. Some degree of hazard was in- 
volved in this activity, in that failure to hold 
the captive securely often resulted in inflic- 
tion of painful wounds from its talons. The 
supernatural powers attributed to the eagle 
evoked a series of conciliatory rites on the 
part of the trapper preceding and following 
its seizure. 

White Bear, a conjuror and eagle trapper,* 
was a Cree by birth but intermarried among 
and lived with the Blood tribe of Black- 
foot most of his life. He was said to have 
been about 83 years old at the time of his 
death in 1995. About 1850 White Bear was 
taking eagles in the region south of Edmon- 
ton, when an omaxsapitaw visited his trap. 


> Dog Takes a Gun claims to have seen this 
wing in the possession of a curio dealer in Calgary 
some 10 years ago. 

4 White Bear is noteworthy because of another 
practice attributed to him by his grandson. To tie 
himself up in the Houdini trick preliminary to a 
conjuring performance, he employed the leather 
thong, which also served as his ceremonial pack 
line (See Speck, 1935, p. 203, for the nimaban or 
ceremonial game carrying string of the Naskapi). 
The multiple functions thus assigned to the pack 
line opens up an interesting topic of investigation. 
So far as 1am aware, the ceremonial game carrying 
string has never been reported among the Plains 

ree. 


June 1951 


Looking through the brush screen, he saw 
an immense bird soaring high in the air. 
After circling several times, the bird de- 
scended to the ground near the pit. It was 
quite wary, and only after considerable 
hesitation did it approach the bait. By this 
time White Bear had observed its size and 
concluded that it would be too difficult to 
capture, except at the risk of injury to him- 
self. Seizing the stick used to frighten off 
the bald eagle, he thrust it through the pit 
cover and frightened the intruder away. 
Later he described it as the largest bird he 
had ever seen. It was dark in color with 
brown-striped tailfeathers (sic). Its head 
and hooked beak were large and its legs 
coarsely scaled. This incident was narrated 
by the grandson of the trapper, Harry 
Under Mouse. 

Traditional information from a more 
distant past was secured from Yellow Kid- 
ney (age 80), whose knowledge of the earlier 
life and customs of the Piegan is extensive. 
In this connection he described the ap- 
pearance and habits of the omaxsapitaw in 
some detail. He referred to the character- 
istics of immense size and dark color, the 
great wingspread, and the elongated tail. 
He drew attention to the white underparts 
of the wings (sic) and, in contrast to the 
bald and immature golden eagle, the dark 
spots in the tailfeathers (sic). He described 
the large, hooked beak as dark blue, shading 
to yellow at the base. The head plumage 
(sic) was characterized as brownish in color. 

Yellow Kidney was aware that the “big 
eagle’s”” home range lay far to the south 
and that it appeared infrequently in sum- 
mer as far north as Montana and Alberta. 
Long ago he had been told by elderly Piegans 
that the great birds were attracted to this 
northern country by the remains of bison 
slain by the Indians on the plains. Richard 
Sanderville, it should be noted, also recalled 
traditions of their being seen feeding upon 
bison careasses. At other times the omax- 
sapitaw were sighted high in the air above 
the Blackfoot camps in the foothills. They 
would soar in wide circles and suddenly 
dart off at great speed towards the moun- 
tains to the west. There, early in the evening, 
the great birds sought rest atop some pre- 
cipitous cliff, “where they slept with their 
heads tucked beneath their wings.”’ 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


185 


Yellow Kidney believed that long ago 
the Blackfoot succeeded, upon rare occa- 
sions, in capturing the “big eagle.” At that 
time the conciliatory practices and disposal 
rites ordinarily associated with the young 
golden eagle were transferred to the omax- 
sapitau. The former bird, with its predom- 
inantly white tailfeathers, was considered a 
prize catch by all native trappers and special 
ceremonial treatment was accorded its 
remains. The informant went on to say that 
occasionally the nest (sic) of the omaysapttau 
was so situated that hunters were able to 
make their way to it. Then the fledglings 
were removed, reared in captivity, and 
killed at maturity for their feathers. Seven 
primaries were detached from one wing and 
put aside for ritual disposal. The remaining 
wing primaries, the outer tailfeathers, the 


claws, and the wing-bones—humeri or 
ulnae—were then utilized for decorative and 
other purposes. The best feathers were 


employed for headdresses, the claws drilled 
for necklaces, and the wing-bones worked 
into whistles. 

The flight powers of the “big eagle” 
enabled it to mount far into the sky and thus 
approach more closely to the Sun, the great 
celestial being of Blackfoot worship. As a 
result, the bird was believed to acquire a 
degree of the Sun’s sacred character. The 
golden eagle, the white bison, the mountain 
lion, and a number of other birds and ani- 
mals, by virtue of this or other attributes, 
were considered endowed with the same 
solar power. Hence to justify taking the life 
of one of these sacred creatures, as well as 
to avert subsequent misfortune, the Black- 
foot sacrificed, whole or in part, its flesh and 
skin to the Sun. Accordingly, the seven 
wing primaries of the omaxsapitaw were at- 
fixed to the tanned hide of a bison ealf. 
They were arranged so that the quills came 
together at a point, with the distal ends 
spaced equidistant about a semicirele.® The 


° Offerings thus made to a supernatural being 
appear to represent an old practice in Northern 
Plains cultures. Some years ago Wissler (p. 106, 
fn. 1) observed on the Blackfoot reservation a 
group of such offerings near a stone shelter used in 
the vision quest. They consisted of ‘tan old coat, a 
shirt tied to a stick, and a peculiar fan-shaped 
object of twigs distended by being bound to a hoop 
of the same material. On the projecting ends of the 
twigs were eagle feathers. ... We were told that 
such fanlike objects were often used when making 


186 


robe thus adorned was placed on top of a 
sweatlodge built for the occasion. Four 
medicine bundle owners of advanced age 
were then invited to enter the lodge, and 
while sweating, they prayed to the Sun for 
good fortune in various activities of life. 
At the conclusion of the observance, a youth 
carried away the decorated robe and placed 
it on a hilltop as a gift to the Sun.® 
Previously an episode was given that 
involved an unexpected and possibly un- 
welcome visit of the omaysapitau to the 
eagle trap. According to Yellow Kidney, 
however, it was the practice of an earlier 
generation of Blackfoot to take the great 
bird occasionally by this method, despite 
its wariness and size. In this case the im- 
mediate purpose was procurement of spirit- 
ual rather than material benefits. The 
trapper, it was explained, vowed to the Sun 
that if permitted to capture a “big eagle,”’ 
he would, in the native idiom, “place fine 
pemmican’ in its mouth.” It was now ex- 
pected that the normally shy bird, perhaps 
directed by the Sun, would circle the trap 
in flight and descend to the bait. The sup- 
pliant would then grasp its legs, immediately 
thrust forward a wooden billet for its talons 
to embed themselves (sic), pull it into the 
pit, place his knee upon its back and dis- 
locate its neck. No part of the dead bird 
would be taken for the trapper’s use. In- 
stead, he removed the skin and mounted it 
in a lifelike manner, placed a morsel of 
pemmican in its beak, and abandoned it 
upon a hill as an offering to the Sun. In 
return for his sacrifice, the trapper antici- 
pated that the spirit of the dead bird would 
appear to him in a dream and offer its super- 
natural power. The visitant would then 
say, “My name is omaysapitau. I am known 
over all the earth. I am glad that you have 
treated me so well and offered me to the 
Sun. I will help you in any way that you may 
desire.’”’ Again it should be pointed out that 


sun offerings.’’? The Kutenai similarly attached a 
small gift to a wooden hoop made of a twig as an 
offering to one of their supernatural spirits. 

6 For an account of Blackfoot sweat lodge rites 
and the disposition of offerings, see Wissler, pp. 
259-62. 

7 A choice item of Blackfoot diet made from the 
tenderloin and marrow fat of the bison, mixed with 
berries and, for ceremonial purposes such as the 
above, divided into small pieces. 


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vou. 41, No. 6: 


these rites were ordinarily associated with 
the young golden eagle. 

In a dream revelation of this kind it was: 
not unusual for the spiritual benefactor to. 
bestow its name upon the human suppliant. 
The term omaxsapitau thus appears to have 
entered the Blackfoot system of individual 
names some generations ago. According to 
Yellow Kidney, a Piegan named Bird Flying 
High (pikstpodnsin) was blessed in this way 
by the ‘‘big eagle.” He belonged to a group 
of the Fat-roasters band, which intermarried 
among the Blood Indians and went to live 
with them in Canada. The great bird, it is 
stated, appeared to him in a dream and said, 
“T will give you my name. You will be 
called omaxsapttau. You will become chief 
of your band and live to a very old age.” 
Bird Flying High thereupon adopted the 
name of Big Eagle, and the dream vision was 
consummated by his later rise to the position 
of band chief. Yellow Kidney claims that 
when he was a small child he saw Big Eagle, 
who was already advanced in age at that 
time. Hence the latter’s dream experience 
may be placed some time in the period be- 
fore 1850. 

Big Eagle, following his dream experience, 
wore suspended from his hair two tail- 
feathers of the omaxsapitau, to which a 
medal was attached as a support. The former 
were a symbolical representation of his 
spiritual power from the “big eagle’; the 
latter, his power from the Sun. Yellow 
Kidney, in his early childhood, saw the 
supernatural token and recalled that the 
feathers surpassed those of the eagle in 
length. At times, our informant stated, Big 
Eagle would demonstrate his spiritual gifts. 
through the use of his feather token. He 
would direct his friends, “Look up at the 
Sun. Do you see anything around it?” They 
would look and fail to see anything unusual. 
Then Big Eagle would begin the power song 
given him by the Sun, “When I come up to 
the top of the hill, I shall see all about me.” 
As he sang, he motioned with one of the 
feathers as if marking out a spot above the 
Sun. A sun dog (parhelion) would there- 
upon appear beside it. In this way, accord- 
ing to Yellow Kidney, who witnessed the 
feat in his youth, Big Eagle could produce 
as many as four sun dogs about the Sun at 
one time. 


JUNE 1951 


Information regarding another Black- 
foot, who more recently bore the name of 
Big Eagle, was given by Harry Under 
Mouse. The source of the latter’s data was 
Small Eyes, a prominent native ritualist on 
the Gleichen Reserve, Alberta. This Big 
Eagle, it appears, was a member of the All- 
Short-People band of the Blackfoot proper. 
He married a Blood woman and lived for 
some years among the members of that 
tribe. Big Eagle fasted for power in the 
region northwest of Calgary. On the top 
of Deyil’s Head Mountain, he sacrificed a 
piece of his flesh to the Sun. On nearby 
Bald Butte he then offered up to the “big 
eagle,’ a Cree foeman, whom he had killed 
at the spirit bird’s request. In return he 
received supernatural power for use in war- 
fare from both spiritual beings. As a symbol 
of his aerial protector, Big Eagle carried a 
tailfeather of an omaxsapitau. Before start- 
ing out upon a raid, he would stick the 
feather upright in the ground by the cere- 
monial altar. The direction in which it fell 
during the night indicated the way he must 
travel to obtain horses from the enemy.*® 

The skill of the second Big Eagle as a 
raider was said to have depended, in part, 
upon his use of a root with soporific power. 
After rubbing some of it upon the feather 
token, he would chew a small piece and spit 
upon both his hands. Then, taking the 
feather, he would motion with it in a peculiar 
way and thereby cause an enemy sentry to 
fall into a deep sleep. By this means he is 
said to have stolen 200 horses from the 
Assiniboine and driven them safely home. 
Through his power to put the occupants of 
an enemy lodge asleep, Big Eagle is also 
credited with acquiring from adjacent tribes 
one or more pipe bundles, which were later 
passed down among the Blackfoot. On one 
oceasion, it was narrated, he was surrounded 
by hostile Cree on the top of Devil’s Head 
Mountain. Through use of his supernatural 
power Big Eagle rendered himself and his 
party invisible and safely passed through 
the enemy lines. When the Cree advanced 
to the summit, the only living thing seen 

8 On the basis of preliminary results of a study 
now in progress, the Blackfoot iniskim or buffalo 
stone was employed in an analogous manner to 
determine, at certain times, the direction in which 


to hunt buffalo and, at others, to predict the out- 
come of the hunt. 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


187 


there was a great, dark-colored bird, which 
flew away. Big Eagle is said to have died 
in 1925, advanced in years. His son, Steven 
Fox (Short Crow or Thunder Chief), who 
now resides on the Blood Reserve, is said to 
have borne the name of Big Eagle during 
his younger years. The feather token of the 
elder Big Hagle came into possession of 
Small Eyes, but its present whereabouts 
are now unknown. 

Harry Under Mouse informs me that other 
tangible remains of the omaysapitaw sur- 
vived as late as a decade ago among the 
Cree Indians of Hobbema, south of Ed- 
monton. He had been told by a Cree from 
that place that the ceremonial regalia of a 
performer in the Grass Dance consisted of 
the stuffed body, wings, and tail of one of 
these birds. The regalia was designed to be 
tied to the dancer’s back, so that the con- 
dor’s head rose above that of the wearer, 
the body and spread tail hung downward 
nearly to the ground, and an extended wing 
was attached to each arm. During the dance 
the wearer imitated the flight and other 
actions of the “big eagle.’’ The bird that 
supplied this skin was presumably killed 
in this area by the Cree at some period in 
the past. 

Native testimony in respect to the “big 
eagle” may be concluded by reference to 
its place in Blackfoot folklore. It will scarcely 
come as a surprise to learn that the omax- 
sapitau has become identified with the myth- 
ical roc in a Blood version of that tale.’ The 
protagonist of the legend, according to 
Harry Under Mouse, is the aforementioned 
White Bear, “who first learned what and 
where the omaxsapitaw was.” As a result 
of his encounter with the bird, White Bear 
is said to have borne for a time the name of 


°The Roe legend is perhaps widespread in 
North America. I have made no effort to trace its 
distribution in the Plains or adjacent areas in 
connection with this study. It may be noted in 
passing that a generalized version of the Blackfoot 
tale was obtained in 1947 from the Upper Kutenai, 
of Elmo, Montana, who assign its origin to the 
Sarsi. Fisher (p. 253) refers to the myth of an eagle 
or mythieal bird abductor among such Algonkian- 
speaking groups, as the Miemac, Passamaquoddy, 
Malecite, Montagnais-Naskapi, Cree, Ojibwa, 
Menomini, Gros Ventre, and Cheyenne. Future 
folklorists, who trace the distribution of the 
myth, may well consider the condor as a possible 
influence in its western diffusion. 


188 


Big Eagle. The tale, it may be pointed out, 
conforms, in general, to the Blackfoot pat- 
tern of an individual’s experience in the 
power quest. 


The Blood tribe was encamped in the vicinity 
of moder Edmonton. Food was scarce and 
parties of hunters scattered out in different 
directions to search for game. Upon their return 
at night, one member of a party would be missing. 
Men continued to disappear in this way for 
some time. 

Finally a party of four went out a long way to 
hunt. Near the place called Devil’s Head, they 
put up a brush shelter for several days’ stay. 
That night they sang their supernatural power 
songs for good luck in the next day’s hunt. The 
following morning the four men started out, 
each in a different direction. All agreed to meet 
at camp that night. 

A light snow fell that day. One of the hunters 
killed a deer. He butchered it and tied the meat 
in a pack upon his back. Then he started back 
for camp, using his bow as a cane to support the 
load. Walking along with his head bowed, he 
suddenly saw the shadow of a great bird upon 
the snow. He felt the bird grasp at the meat on 
his back, and the next instant realized that he 
was rising in the air. Too frightened now to look 
down, he closed his eyes. After a brief period he 
felt solid ground beneath his feet and lay back 
with the pack still in place. He opened his eyes 
to see that he was in a large nest surrounded by 
the bones of deer, bison calves and even human 
beings. It came to him then that the last repre- 
sented the remains of those hunters recently lost. 

He sat up and looked around. The nest was 
located upon a high cliff, from which escape 
seemed impossible. Nearby was an immense bird, 
which cried in a strange way. The hunter realized 
this was the creature that had carried people 
away. He called upon the Sun for aid. Beside 
him were two young birds, scarcely able to fly. 
He began to pray to them for help. Untying his 
pack, the hunter threw bits of meat to them, 
which they ate. He continued doing this in order 
to bring them closer. 

Finally, he pushed the whole chunk of meat 
over. The feeding birds were now within reach. 
He quickly grasped their legs in each of his 
hands. They began to flap their wings, nearly 
jerking him into the air. Still retaining his hold, 
he inched over to the edge of the cliff. Then he 
pushed the birds off into space, throwing himself 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


off at the same instant. Again he closed his eyes. 
He found that the flight power of the birds, 
although insufficient to support his weight, served 
to check his descent to the ground. It seemed a 
long way down. Finally he landed in safety. 
Before releasing his rescuers, he detached the 
longest feather from the tail of each bird. Then 
he started to make his way home. 

It was late in the evening when he arrived at 
camp. He recognized the cries of his wife and 
parents, who were mourning atop a nearby hill. 
As he listened, someone went over and led them 
back to their lodge. He looked inside the lodge 
and saw that his people had cut off thei hair 
and gashed their arms and legs. Only then did 
he realize that they were mourning his death. 
Going inside, he greatly surprised the occupants. 
They could scarcely believe that he was alive, 
but he convinced them that he was not a ghost. 

The hunter then asked his wife to invite the 
old men of the camp to his lodge. His mother be- 
gan to prepare food for them. After all had eaten, 
he related his experience and as proof displayed 
the tail feathers of the young birds. As the old 
men examined the trophies, they noted that 
they were nearly the length of a grown person’s 
arm. The hunter’s companions, who had also 
returned by this time, told how they had followed 
his tracks to where they ended in the snow and 
picked up his bow nearby. In this way it became 
known what creatures had caused the people to 
disappear. As a result of this incident, the hunter 
later received supernatural power from the “big 
eagle.” 


Accounts from Blackfoot oral sources 
previously set forth in respect to the omax- 
sapitau and its place in the ethno-ornithology 
of that group may now be summarized. 
The identification of the omaxsapitau as 
the condor and the latter’s occurrence in 
Blackfoot territory rests upon three types 
of traditional evidence: (1) a series of native 
sight records made over a period of half a 
century or more, (2) reflections of identity 
and presence in various aspects of Black- 
foot culture, and (3) notions of modern 
Indians regarding the bird’s size, habits, 
and appearance derived from (1) and (2). 
The second of these types of data has been 
adequately treated in the body of this 
study. Hence, it will suffice to summarize 
in some detail the remaining two. 

As a rough measure of the validity of our 


JUNE 1951 


data, we may comment briefly here upon 
the degree of interest manifested by the 
Blackfoot in the avian world. In general, 
it may be said, wildfowl represented a seg- 
ment of the local fauna and flora, which, 
together with the Blackfoot and their cul- 
tural structure, constituted a closely knit 
biotic community of the northwestern 
Plains. The place of the Blackfoot in such an 
ecological system may be epitomized by 
Speck’s characterization (1921, p. 349) of 
the Algonkians of the northeastern forests, 
a comment that applies equally well to their 
linguistic congeners of the plains: “The 
native Indians live much closer to Nature 
than most white people could hope to do. 
Their knowledge of wildlife is therefore in- 
exhaustable in quantity, though it is often 
far from being scientifically correct.” The 
Blackfoot, dependent predominantly upon 
the bison for subsistence, were better mam- 
malogists, perhaps, than ornithologists. 
Nevertheless, the group built up over gen- 
erations an extensive body of knowledge 
based upon observation of the local avifauna, 
the influence of which pervaded such varied 
fields as hunting and trapping, material 
crafts and decorative arts, curing practices, 
folklore, and ceremonial rites, songs, and 
dances. As a result, most Blackfoot became 
acquainted from childhood with the appear- 
ance, habits and culturally defined attri- 
butes of the avian species within their ken. 
It is against this background of familiarity 
that native testimony on the omaxsapitau 
should be evaluated. 

In respect to the physical features and 
habits of the omaxsapitau, nearly all Black- 
foot traditions stressed the factors of great 
size and dark color. Other elements cited 
by one or more informants, include the 
naked head, the feather ruff, the dark, 
hooked beak, the length and power of the 
wings, the white area underwing, the ex- 
tended tailfeathers, and the coarsely scaled 
legs. Reference was also made to the bird’s 
wariness, its habit of soaring in great cir- 
cles and suddenly darting off at great speed, 
and the inclined posture in feeding. Certain 
of these traits, such as the feathered ruff, 
bald head, great size, ete., are sufficiently 
distinctive of the condor to suggest identity. 

In contrast to the preceding list of char- 
acteristic traits must be set others atypical 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


189 


of the condor. Such discrepancies in our 
data have been noted wherever recognized. 
Some, no doubt, represent errors introduced 
unconsciously into the flow of Blackfoot 
traditions. Others appear to be traits trans- 
ferred by native observers from the golden 
eagle to the omaxsapitau. Nidification in the 
eastern foothills of the Rockies, undoubt- 
edly, represents one such case. The pred- 
atorial habit assigned in the Blood legend 
to a scavenger species is another. It may be 
recalled that the Indians classified the 
omaxsapttau, both taxonomically and _ ter- 
minologically, with the golden eagle. Only 
one informant, Jim White Calf, seemed 
aware of the former’s genetic relationship 
to the turkey vulture. The confusion evi- 
dent in the minds of native ornithologists 
may have been the result of the condor’s 
infrequent appearances in this area, in 
modern if not in earlier times. Few Black- 
foot during the last century have ever seen 
the species at close hand or over a period 
of time. In view of this unfamiliarity, it is 
surprising that greater errors have not been 
introduced in native descriptions. Such, 
then, represents the traditional evidence 
upon which identifications of the condor 
must, at the moment, rest. 

Turning next to the reported occurrences 
of the omaxsapitau in Blackfoot territory, 
we find that they are placed by native ob- 
servers, both living and dead, at irregular 
intervals from the early 1900’s back to the 
middle of the previous century. Of such ap- 
pearances, the least credible, perhaps, is 
that of 1907-08, a date posterior to the 
final sight record (Rhoads) of the condor 
on the north Pacific coast!? by more than a 
decade. Raven’s reported observation of 
the omaxsapitaw in 1897 comes within a 
year of Fannin’s sight record near Calgary. 
Preceding these appearances is the Phemister 
occurrence of the 1870’s; those of Takes a 
Gun’s parents and Brocky’s of the 1860’s; 
and White Bear’s of the 1850’s. The testi- 
mony of Yellow Kidney in respect to the 
Indian named Big Eagle and to other topies, 
seems referable to a still earlier period. 
From these data, scanty and unsatisfactory 


1 Gabrielson and Jewett (p. IS1) report, on the 
basis of what appears to them good authority, the 
presence of two or more condors in southern 
Oregon in 1903 and again in 1904. 


190 


as they are, it would seem that the condor 
appeared in the Montana-Alberta region 
prior to the 1850’s sufficiently often to leave 
a definite impress upon Blackfoot institu- 
tions and thus give rise to the traditions 
related by Yellow Kidney. Such seasonal 
movement of the condor northward along 
the Continental Divide may, perhaps, paral- 
lel its observed wanderings (1805-34) up 
the west coast to the lower Columbia and 
the Fraser. In subsequent decades the species 
was seen less frequently in Montana and 
Alberta, as well as along the coast, until 
its terminal appearance in both regions Just 
before the close of the century. 

A final point already mentioned in our 
study calls for elaboration here. The histor- 
ical sources indicate that the condor was 
attracted to the lower Columbia and lower 
Fraser Rivers by the multitude of dead, 
migrant salmon, which in autumn lined the 
banks of those streams. What comparable 
food resource, it may be asked, served to 
draw the species to the northwestern margin 
of the Plains? The black-tailed deer!! im- 
mediately comes to mind, the range of which 
has been shown to closely overlap that of 
the condor (Elliott, p. 122). However, it 
seems more probable, as native traditions 
suggest, that the bird’s major item of sub- 
sistence in this region lay in the readily ac- 
cessible remains of bison killed by the Black- 
foot and their neighbors. As Ewers (p. 358) 
has recently pointed out, the impounding 
of bison at drive sites was largely carried 
on by the Blackfoot late m fall and early 
in winter, a period which found the condor 
absent from the north. However, a plentiful 
supply of meat in this area was assured dur- 
ing the warmer months of the year. Then 
the hunt was also organized on a coopera- 
tive, group basis in the form of the sur- 
round on horseback, or at an earlier period, 
on foot. The abandonment by hunters of 
bison bones and offals at this season, which 
in fall supplied tallow and meat for the man- 

1 One authority believes that the condor pre- 
ferred deer meat to any other. He observes that 
“they can make hash of a dead deer, sheep or other 
small animals; yet it seems that they have not the 
power to cut through the skin of a horse, cow or 
other large animal until the meat is somewhat de- 


composed”’ (Elliott, pp. 123-24, quoting Pem- 
berton). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ufacture of pemmican, afforded a source of 
diet for the condor and other carnivorous 
creatures. 

In conclusion, information gathered from 
Blackfoot traditionalists suggests, in the 
writer’s opinion, the condor’s former move- 
ment northward, as a casual and infrequent 
visitant, along the eastern slopes of the 
Rockies as far as Montana and Alberta. 
The evidence for this statement 1s scarcely 
of a nature as to win acceptance from mod- 
ern ornithologists, whose standards of proof 
require something more tangible than sight 
records or native traditions. The present 
study, however, is designed to stimulate 
further investigation of the topic. Inquiries 
should be carried out among Canadian 
Blackfoot and adjacent Cree, from whom 
significant information, and, even more 
concrete evidence of the species’ identity 
and presence may still be obtained. If such 
data are forthcoming, it will be possible to 
add, in the words of one student, ‘“‘another 
section to the jigsaw puzzle of Gymnogyps’ 
extra-limital wanderings.”” Until that time, 
memories of the ‘‘big eagle’ will continue 
to be preserved among the descendants of 
those bison-hunting tribesmen, who long 
ago observed its great, sweeping flights from 
out of the fastnesses of the Rockies. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ Union. Check-list of 
North American birds, ed. 4. 1931. 

Bent, Artuur C. Life histories of North American 
birds of prey, part 1.U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 167. 
1937. 

Dawson, Won. L., and Bowtks, Joun H. The birds 
of Washington, 2 vols. Seattle, 1909. 

Exiiorr, Cuarues (ed.). Fading trails: The story 
of endangered American wildlife. New York, 
1943. 

Ewers, Joun C. The last bison drives of the Black- 
foot Indians. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
39: 355-360. 1949. 

Fannin, J. The California vulture in Alberta. Auk 
14: 89. 1897. 

Fisoer, Marcaret W. The mythology of the north- 
ern and northeastern Algonkians in reference 
to Algonkian mythology as a whole. In ‘Man 
in Northeastern North America,’’ Frederick 
Johnson (ed.). Pap. Robert S. Peabody Foun- 
dation for Arch. 3: 226-262. 1946. 

GaABRIELSON, IRA N., and Jewrrr, STANLEY G. 
Birds of Oregon. Corvallis, 1940. 

Harris, Harry. The annals of Gymnogyps to 
1900. Condor 48: 3-55. 1941. 


JUNE 1951 


Macotn, JoHn and James H. Catalogue of Cana- 
dian birds. Geological Survey of Canada, 
Ottawa, 1909. 

PEARSON, Grupert T. (ed.). Birds of America. 
Garden City, 1936. 

ScHAEFFER, CiLaupE E. Bird nomenclature and 
principles of avian taxonomy of the Blackfeet 
Indians. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 
37-46. 1950. 

Speck, FRANK G. Bird-lore of the Northern Indians. 


STRIMPLE: NEW DESMOINESIAN CRINOIDS 


191 


Public Lectures by Univ. of Pennsylvania 

Faculty, 1919-20, 7: 349-380. 1921. 

. Naskapi: The savage hunters of the Labrador 
Peninsula. Norman, Okla., 1935. 

TAVERNER, P. A. Birds of Canada. Dept. of Mines, 
Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. 72, biol. ser. 19. 
Ottawa, 1934. 

Wisster, Cuark. Ceremonial bundles of the Black- 
foot Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop. 
Pap. 7 (2). 1912. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New Desmoinesian crinoids. HARRELL L. Srrmpxe, Bartles- 
ville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Glaukosocrinus, n. gen., 1s here proposed 
with G. parvisculus (Moore and Plummer), 
n. comb. as the genotype species. Descrip- 
tion of Aeszocrinus erectus, n. sp., Acrocrinus 
expansus, n. sp., Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. 
sp., and Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp., 1s given. 
All figured specimens are from exposures of 
the Oologah limestone formation, sometimes 
referred to the Altamont limestone of Kan- 
sas, Des Moines series, Pennsylvanian, lo- 
cated east of Tulsa, Okla. 


Glaukosocrinus, n. gen. 


Dorsal cup moderately low truncate, semi- 
globular with deep basal invagination. Columnar 
sear small, round, occupying the median portion 
of a relatively large IBB circlet. Five small IBB 
are restricted to basal concavity. Five moder- 
ately large BB form a part of the lateral calyx 
walls and flex strongly inward to form sides of 
the basal concavity. Five large RR have short 
articulating processes which are directed mildly 
outward. Outer surfaces of RR curve in to form 
adsutural slopes between articulating facets. 
Anal X is large, pentagonal and does not extend 
into the interbrachial region. RA is pentagonal 
and rests on r. post. and post. BB. It supports 
a small pentagonal RX, which extends only 
slightly into the interbrachial area. 

Genotype.—Malaiocrinus parvisculus 
and Plummer (1940). 

Known range.—Des Moines series; Pennsyl- 
vanian; North America. 

Discussion.—This form was referred to Mala- 
tocrinus Wanner (1924) by Moore and Plummer 
(1940). It has certain characteristics superficially 
similar to that genus and may represent a trend 
of specialization leading to the genus but certain 
factors seem sufficient to warrant separation. 
Malaiocrinus has anal plates of normal structure 


Moore 


in normal (primitive) arrangement. Anal X is 
hexagonal. In Glaukosocrinus the anal plate is 
pentagonal and does not extend above the normal 
cup height. The radial articulating facets of 
Malaiocrinus are long, directed strongly outward 
and the columnar scar is very large, almost en- 
tirely covering the IBB plates. Glaukosocrinus 
has short radial articulating facets directed only 
slightly outward and the columnar scar is small. 


Glaukosocrinus parvisculus (Moore and 
Plummer), n. comb. 


Figs. 13-16 


This species has been adequately described. 
The specimen figured herein was collected by the 
author in the stone quarry some 7 miles east of 
Tulsa, Okla. 


Genus Aesiocrinus Miller and Gurley, 1890 
Aesiocrinus erectus, n. sp. 


Figs. 9-12 


Dorsal cup is broad, truncate bowl-shaped. 
Five IBB form a large pentagonal-shaped disk 
with slightly depressed median section. Five 
large BB curve into the subhorizontal basal area 
but also comprise a good portion of the lateral 
cup walls. Five large RR have arm articulating 
facets directed slightly outward and not entirely 
filling the distal faces of the plates. Outer liga- 
ment furrow is shallow but well defined. Liga- 
ment pit furrow is shallow and ligament pit is 
sharply impressed. Transverse ridges are sharply 
defined, narrow lateral furrows are backed by 
unusually long oblique ridges. Muscle sears are 
limited in area and are deeply impressed. Inter- 
muscular notches and furrows are broad and 
short. The right shoulder of 1. post. B is extended 
and has an extra facet for reception of an anal 
tube plate. R. post. R and the anal plate are 


192 


missing in the holotype but measurements leave 
no doubt as to the existence of only one anal 
plate in the posterior interradius, which plate 
was in broad contact with the post. B. 

The entire surface of the dorsal cup is mildly 
granular in appearance. Depressions occur at the 
apices of RR and BB. Columnar scar is decidedly 
pentagonal in outline. Maximum width of dorsal 
cup is 18.5 mm, height 8.2 mm. 

Remarks.—The general contour of the dorsal 
cup of A. erectus is very similar to that of several 
species of Plummericrinus Moore and Laudon 
(1943) and is quite unlike that of any other spe- 
cies of Aestocrinus. Characteristics, other than 
general appearance, in common with Plummeri- 
crinus are the depressions at the angles of BB and 
RR and the extension of the outer surfaces of RR 
into the adsutural area between the arm articu- 
lating processes. However, Plummericrinus has 
three anal plates in the posterior interradius and 
a round stem. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry some 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be 
deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 


Genus Acrocrinus Yandell, 1846 
Acrocrinus expansus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 17-20 


Dorsal cup is of moderate height, wide at the 
base and mildly constricted at the distal ex- 
tremity. Two BB of equal size are confined to a 
shallow basal concavity. The walls of the basal 
depression are composed of two circlets of small 


e.g 
010 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


plates. Five RR are hexagonal and are adjoining 
except where interrupted by the large anal X in 
the posterior interradius. Articular facets are 
small, horse shoe shaped. 

The BB and RR are separated by about six 
circlets of plates which are designated as inter- 
calaries (11). In the first circlet below the RR and 
anal X series, there are 12 hexagonal ii', 14 ii?, 
16 ii’, and 14 ii*. Exact placement of succeeding 
series is difficult owing to slight irregularities and 
the incipient nature of those nearest the BB. 
Plates of the posterior interray continue un- 
broken to the BB disk and also in the anterior 
ray. In other rays the series are broken. Con- 
sidering the large number of plates the arrange- 
ment is remarkably symmetrical. 

The columnar scar is very small and round. 
Arms and tegmen have not been observed. Cup 
plates are devoid of ornamentation. Greatest 
width of dorsal cup (basal) is 11.0 mm, width at 
distal extremity is 6.5 mm, height 9.0 mm. 

Remarks.—Acrocrinus worthent Wachsmuth 
(1882), Acrocrinus pumpkensis Strimple (1949), 
A. brentwoodensis Moore and Plummer (1937), 
and A. pirum Moore and Plummer (1937) have 
calices similar to the present species in general 
outline. They have broad basal areas and tend 
toward constriction in the distal extremities of 
the cup. A. pirum is elongated and has.a greater 
number of plates than other species. A. wortheni 
has fewer plates and a different arrangement of 
intercalaries than found in A. expansus. A. pump- 
kensis has a limited number of intercalaries and 
the cup does not constrict so noticeably at the 


Fic. 1.—Diagrammatic sketch showing arrangement of plates in the holotype of Acrocrinus expansus, 
n. sp. 


2-5.—Holotype of Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp., from below, anterior, summit, and posterior, 
—Holotype of Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. sp., from posterior, summit, and base, 
€ gS, Fras. 9-12.—Holotype of Aestocrinus erectus, n. sp., from base, summit, anterior, and pos 


Fics. 
< IS, Figs. 6 


Fias. 13-16.—Typical representative of Glaukosocrinus parvisculus (Moore and 


terior, X 1.6. 
Fras. 20. Holotype 


Plummer), n. comb., from anterior, posterior, summit, and base, X 1.8. 
of Acrocrinus expansus, n. sp., from summit, base, anterior, and posterior, X 3 


194 


distal extremity. In A. brentwoodensis all RR are 
in contact with four plates in addition to lateral 
contact with adjoining RR, whereas in A. ex- 
pansus only the two posterior RR have contact 
with four plates and the three anterior RR are 
each in contact with three plates. 

The only other described Pennsylvanian spe- 
cies is A. elegans Strimple (1949) which has a 
slender, elongated cup. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry about 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by Melba Strimple. To 
be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


Genus Lecythiocrinus White, 1880 
Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. sp. 


Figs. 6-8 


Dorsal cup is elongated, more or less spherical 
in outline. Three unequal IBB form a mildly up- 
flared, broad base. The smaller IB is right pos- 
terior. Five BB are long, hexagonal plates with 
proximal portions curved to join IBB plates. 
Five RR are small pentagonal plates with promi- 
nent, wide arm articulating facets. There is a 
pronounced reduction in width of RR as the 
upper edge of the cup is approached. An oval 
shaped opening is in the upper extremity of post. 
B and lower lateral portions of |. post. and r. 
post. RR. When the cup is viewed from above or 
below there is a mildly pentagonal outline due to 
slightly raised median areas in the proximal por- 
tions of BB. 

Columnar scar is small, round. Arms and teg- 
men are unknown. The greatest width of dorsal 
cup is 10.4 mm, height 10.6 mm. 

Remarks.—L. optimus differs from other de- 
scribed species in having broad, rather distended 
articulating processes. The outline of the cup is 
somewhat comparable to those of L. adamsi 
Worthen (1883) and L. olliculaeformis White 
(1880). 

Occurrence.—Road cut on eastward extension 
of thirty-first Street, southeast of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by Frank Crane. To be 
deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


Genus Schistocrinus Moore and Plummer, 1940 
Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp. 


Figs. 2-5 
Dorsal cup is shallow, bowl-shaped. In the 
median portion of a broad, shallow basal con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


cavity there is a sharply impressed, small, round 
columnar sear. Five IBB form a cog shaped disk 
surrounding the impressed area. Five small BB 
are more or less triangular shaped plates with 
the exception of post. B which is rather elongate 
and is truncated for reception of anal X. Five 
large RR are in solid contact with the IBB plates 
and prevent lateral contact between BB. Three 
anal plates are in normal (primitive) arrange- 
ment. RA is a narrow, elongate plate supporting 
the narrow proximal face of RX above and is in 
contact with anal X to the left. RX expands 
noticeably as it enters the interbrachial region. 
Anal X is a large, long plate. 

All cup plates are unornamented. Arms and 
tegmen are unknown. The dorsal cup has a width 
of 16.6 mm, height of 3.5 mm. 

Remarks.—S. ovalis is more comparable with 
S. torquatus Moore and Plummer (1940), the 
genotype species, than with other described 
forms. S. torquatus has more prominent IBB 
plates, the impressed basal area is entirely oc- 
cupied by the columnar scar, BB have more 
angular proximal facets and the plates of the 
posterior interradius are more advanced in ar- 
rangement. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry about 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be 
deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Miurter, S. A., and;Gururny, W. F. E. Journ 
Cincinnati Soe Nat. Hist. 13: 14. 1890. 

Moors, R. C., and Laupon, L. R. Geol. Soe. 
Amer. Spec. Pap. 46: 56, 58. 1943. 

——— and Priummenr, F. B. Bull. Denison Univ., 
Journ. Sci. Labs., 32: 218-244, pl. 12, figs. 1-3. 
1937. 

———.. Univ. Texas Publ. 3945: 98-101, pl. 14, 
fig. 6; pp. 217-222, pl. 2, fig. 6. 1940. 

Srrimeie, H. L. Amer. Journ. Sci. 247: 900-904, 
pl. 1, figs. 1-6, 1949. 

WacusmutH, C. Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. 
Bull. 1: 41. 1882. 

WANNER, J. Perm. Krin. Timor, 2° Nederl. Ex- 
ped.: 177-188. 1924. 

Wurst, C. A. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 2: 256, pl. 1, 
figs. 4-5. 1880. 

WorrtueEn, A. H. Illinois State Mus. Bull. 1: 37. 
1883. 

YANDELL, L. P. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, 20: 
135-1387. 1846. 


JUNE 1951 


COOPER AND MUIR-WOOD: BRACHIOPOD HOMONYMS 


195 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Brachiopod homonyms. G. ArrHuR Cooprrr, U.S. National 
Museum, and Heten M. Murr-Woop, British Museum (Natural History). 


While preparing a list of the brachiopod 
genera for the forthcoming ‘Treatise on 
Paleontology,” the authors found a number 
of homonyms, which are adjusted below. In 
addition to these, three names previously 
thought to be homonyms proved to have 
been incorrectly replaced. Substitutions for 
these erroneously displaced names are also 
included herein. 


Argentiproductus nom. nov. for Thomasella 
Paul, 1942, Zentralbl. Min. Geol. Paliaont., Abt. 
B, 6: 191 (non Fredericks, 1928, Bull. Com. Géol. 
Leningrad 46 (7): 778, 789, Brachiopoda). 

Type species: Producta margaritacea Phillips, 
1836. 


Callispirina nom. nov. for Mansuyella Reed, 
1944, Palaeont. Indica (n. s.) 23, mem. 2: 505 
(non Endo, 1937, Bull. Manchurian Sci. Mus. 1: 
353, Trilobita). 

Type species: Spiriferina ornata Waagen, 1887. 


Capillirostra nom. nov. for Rhynchonellopsis 
Bose, 1894, Palaeontogr. 41: 57, 77, 78, footnote 
(non Vincent, 1893, Ann. Soc. Malac. Belge 28, 
mém.: 51, Brachiopoda). 

Type species: Rhynchonellina? 
Bose, 1894. 


Elinoria nom. nov. for Elina Fredericks, 1924, 
Bull. Com. Géol. Petrograd 38 (3): 320, 321 
(non Blanchard, 1852, in Gray, Hist. Chile 7: 
28, Lepidoptera; or Ferrari, 1878, Ann. Mus. 
Stor. Nat. Genova 12: 84, Hemiptera; or Houl- 
bert, 1918, in Oberthuer, Etude Lép. 15: 325, 
Lepidoptera). 

Type species: Spirifer rectangulus Kutorga, 
1844. 


Equirostra nom. nov. for Isorhynchus King, 
1850, Mon. Permian Foss., Palaeont. Soc.: 81, 
112 (non Schoenherr, 1833, Gen. et Sp. Cure. 1 
(1): 22; 1836, 3 (2): 631, Coleoptera). 

Type species: Terebratulites aequirostris Schlo- 
theim, as represented by DeVerneuil in Geologie 
de la Russie d’Europe 2, pl. 3, fig. 1. 1845. 

Hirsutella nom. nov. for Hirsutina Kirchner, 
1934, Neues Jahrb. Geol. Paliont. 71, Abt. B 
(1): 106 (non Tutt, 1909, Brit. Butterfl. 3: 154, 
Lepidoptera). 

Type species: Spirifer hirsutus Alberti, 1864. 


Jinkelsteina 


Labriproductus nom. nov. for Worthenella 
Girty, 1938, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28 
(10): 442 (non Walcott, 1911, Smithsonian Misc. 
Coll. 57 (5): 125, Vermes). 

Type species: Productus wortheni Hall, 1858. 

Marionites nom. nov. for Marionella Bancroft, 
1928, Mem. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 72: 181 
(non Cobb, 1922, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
11: 504, Vermes). 

Type species: Marionella typa Bancroft, 1928. 

Nudirostra nom. nov. for Letiorhynchus Hall, 
1860, Ann. Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist. 
13: 75 (non Liorhynchus Rudolphi, 1801, Archiv 
Zool. [Wiedemann] 2 (1): 49, Vermes). 

Type species: Orthis quadricostata Vanuxem, 
1842. 

Phymatothyris nom. nov. for Pallasiella Renz, 
1932, Abh. Schweiz. Paliont. Ges. 52: 40, 41 
(non Sars, 1895, Crustacea Norway 1: 505, Crus- 
tacea; or Kirby, 1910, Synon. Cat. Orthopt. 3: 
168, Orthoptera). 

Type species: Pallasiella kerkyraea Renz, 1932 

Pirgulia nom. nov. for Pirgula DeGregorio, 
1930, Ann. Géol. Paléont. Palermo 52: 30 (non 
Tessmann, 1921, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 10: 
215, Lepidoptera). 

Type species (by monotypy): Lyttonia ? (Pir- 
gula) pedicula DeGregorio, 1930. 

Plectorhynchella nom. nov. for Monticola Naliv- 
kin, 19380. Mem. Com. Géol. Leningrad 180: 86, 
188 (non Boie, 1822, Isis [Oken] 1822: 552, Aves). 

Type species: Athyris collinensis Frech, 1902. 

Sphaerirhynchia nom. nov. for Wilsonella Niki- 
forova, 1937, Palaeont. U.S. 8. R. Mon., Lenin- 
grad, 35: 33 (non Carter, 1885, Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (5) 15: 320, Spongiae). 

Type species: Terebratula wilsont J. Sowerby, 
1816. 

Struspirifer nom. nov. for Schuchertia Fred- 
ericks, 1926, Bull. Acad. Sei. U. R.S. 8. 20 (5-6): 
406 (non Gregory, 1899, Geol. Mag. (n. s.) dee. 
4, 6: 351, Echinodermata). 

Type species: Delthyris niagarensis Conrad, 
1842. 

Sulcirostra nom. noy. for Rhynchonellopsis De- 
Gregorio, 1980, Ann. Géol. Paléont. Palermo 55: 
6 (non Vincent, 1898, Ann. Soe. Malac. Belge 
28, mém.: 51, Brachiopoda). 


196 


Type species: Rhynchonellina seguenzae Gem- 
mellaro, 1871. 


Tunarites nom. nov. for Tunaria Hoek, 1912, 
Neues Jahrb. Min. Geol. Stuttgart, Beil. Bd. 34: 
247 (non Link, 1807, Beschr. Nat. Samml. Univ. 
Rostock 3: 165, Coelenterata). 

Type species. Tunaria cochambina Hoek, 1912. 


SUBSTITUTIONS FOR EXISTING NAMES 


Aetheia Thomson, 1915, Geol. Mag. 2: 389 
(non Aethia Merrem, 1788, Vers. Grundr. Gesch. 
Vogel I, Tent. Nat. Syst. Av.: 7, 13, 20, Aves; 
and Huebner, 1825, Verz. bekannt. Schmett.: 
340, Lepidoptera.). Substitute Thomsonica Coss- 
mann, 1920, Rev. Crit. Paléozool. 24: 137. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 
Type species: Terebratula gualteri Morris, 
1850. 


Megerlia King, 1850, Mon. Permian Foss., 
Palaeont. Soc.: 81, 145, not preoccupied by 
Megerlea Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, Mem. Prés 
Acad. Roy. Sci. Inst. France 2: 266, Diptera. 
Miihlfeldtia Bayle, 1880, Journ. Conch. 28: 240, 
proposed for Megerlia King, 1850, is a synonym. 

Type species: Anomia truncata Gmelin, 1767. 


Yakovlevia Fredericks, 1925, Rec. Geol. Com. 
Russian Far East 40: 7 (non Jakowleffia Puton, 
1875, Petites Nouvelles Ent. 1 (128): 512, He- 
miptera). Substitute Mwirwoodia Licharew, 1947, 
C. R. Acad. Sci. Moscow (n. s.) 57 (2): 187. 

Type species: Productus mammatus Keyser- 
ling, 1846. 


PALEONTOLOGY—Substitution for the preoccupied brachiopod name Hystricina. 
Merrity A. SraInBrook, Brandon, Iowa. (Communicated by G. A. Cooper.) 


Dr. G. Arthur Cooper has recently in- 
formed me that Dr. Helen Muir-Wood and 
he have discovered that the name Hystricina, 
proposed by me in 1945 for a genus of atry- 
poid brachiopods, is preoccupied by Hystrz- 


cina Malloch, 1932 (Rec. Canterbury [N. Z.] 
Mus. 3: 433). To replace it Iam suggesting 
Spinatrypa (Hystricina Stainbrook, not Hys- 
tricina Malloch, 1932). The type species is 
Atrypa hystrix var. occidentalis Hall. 


BOTANY .—A contribution to the lichen flora of Alaska. Grorar A. LLANo, Arctic, 
Desert, Tropic Information Center, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. (Com- 


municated by John A. Stevenson.) 


The following new species, varieties, 
forms, new names, and distributions have 
been taken from a manuscript prepared as 
a report! of field work carried out in Alaska 
by the author in the summer of 1949 and by 
P. F. Scholander in 1948. The final report 
will contain a record of all macrolichens col- 
lected in Alaska including the Aleutians. 
All Stereocaula and Cladoniaceae were deter- 
mined, respectively, by Dr. I. M. Lamb and 
Dr. A. W. Evans. 


1. Stereocaulon glareosum (Sav.) H. Magen. 


in G6teborgs Kgl. Vet. och Vitterh.- 
Saml. Handl. 30: 60. 1926. 

var. brachyphylloides M. Lamb, var. 
nov. 


A specie typica differt phyllocladiis subper- 
sistenter graniformibus aut  subdigitato-con- 
crescentibus, passim tantum  papillae-formiter 


excrescentibus; cephalodia magna, conspicua, 
ut in forma typica. 

Forming caespitose-pulvinate, low clumps with 
uneven surfaces. Podetia firmly attached to the 
soil, short and stout, up to 1.5 em long and 1-2 
mm thick, congested, irregularly branched, + 
upright or various intricated, not dorsiventral; 
+ terete, clothed down to the base with a thin, 
smooth, adpressed, pale rosy-subochraceous to- 
mentum; rigid but not markedly ligneous. 
Phyllocladia lateral on podetia, scanty in lower 
parts, congested and numerous in upper parts, 
cinereous-whitish, matt, unicolorous, mostly 
concrescent grainlike or concrescent-subdigitate, 

1 Studies on the lichen flora of Alaska. The 
North Slope of the Brooks Range, with Appendix. 
The work on which this report is based was sup- 
ported by the Arctic Institute of North America 
with funds provided by the Office of Naval Re- 


search and was conducted under the auspices of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


JUNE 1951 


small (0.1-0.2 mm jdiam.), only rarely and in 
a few places becoming + distinctly elongate- 
papillate. Cephalodia abundant, conspicuous, 
laterally sessile on podetia, smoothly subglo- 
bose, well constricted at base, 0.4-1.5(—3.0) 
mm diam., pale roseate-brownish (+ flesh 
colored), matt, the surface smoothly continuous 
or often rhagadiose-fissured; the larger ones 
(8 em diam.) becoming irregularly pulvinate 
and dividing into several irregular convex por- 
tions. Reactions: phyllocladia KHO + green- 
ish-yellow, Pd + (slowly) sulphur-yellow. 

Anaska: 151-152°W., 68°20’N., Anaktuvuk 
Pass, 1,000 m.s.m. on naked soil, coll. G. A. 
Llano & Neil Weber 527 (no. 1161, Lamb, 
Tyee), sterile. 


2. St. paschale (L.) Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 130. 
1796. 
var. erectum (Frey) M. Lamb, comb. nov. 
Podetia developing in a compact or loose 
manner, erect to suberect, about 4 cm high, 
somewhat branched. 
Anaktuvuk Pass, Llano 4026, in a dry aggraded 
stream floor, among mosses and _ Peltigera. 


3. Peltigera venosa (L.) Baumg. Fl. Lipsiens. 
581. 1790. 
f. tartarea Llano, forma nov. 

Superficies superior sordida, pruina pulver- 
ulenta vel squamosa tecta, inferior tomentosa, 
alba usque pallide bruneola, venis carentibus 
vel inconspicuis; sporae aciculares, 2-3 septatae, 
hyalinae, 36-40 X 4-6.6u. A typo differt dis- 
crepatione superficierum durarum. 

Upper surface dull, covered with a powdery 
to scaly white pruina; lower surface tomentose, 
white to pale brownish without veins, or veins 
indistinct. 

Lake Schraeder, 145°W., 69°20'N., on soil, 
P. F. Scholander, 1948. 


4. Parmelia birulae Hlenk. in Ann. 
Berlin 4(1): 36. 1906. 

var. grumosa Llano, var. nov. 
Thallus imbricatissimus, acervis valde arcuatis 
compositus, lobis latis e lobulis minoribus 
fimbriatus; cortex superior ceraceo-furfuraceus. 
Thallus strongly imbricated in strongly arched 
heaps, lobes broad with sharp to rounded sinuses 
and fringed with smaller lobelets, upper cortex 


waxy-furfuraceous. 


Mycol. 


2 Wdith K. Cash, Plant Industry Stat ion, Belts- 
ville, Md., kindly provided all Latin descriptions 
except for Sterocaulon. 


LLANO: LICHEN FLORA OF ALASKA 


197 


Anaktuvuk Pass, at the summits of lower 
mountains in protected depressions over mosses 
or other lichens Llano 236, 485d. 


5. Cetraria scholanderii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus foliaceus, 10-15 cm in diam., lobato- 
crenatus, 4-6 mm latus, rugulosus, lobis valde 
imbricatis, ascendentibus, inflexis vel canalic- 
ulatis praeditus; cortex superior isidiis dense 
congregatis, simplicibus vel bifurcatis, albis 
obscurisve, verruciformibus vel vermiformibus 
ad apices obscuras tectus, pallide griseolus vel 
pallide griseo-vinaceus, interdum atro-strigosus 
vel marginibus olivaceis vel viridi-nigris, nitens; 
cortex inferior atro-piceus, deinde atro-brunneus 
vel interdum pallide brunneus in apicibus lo- 
borum, subnitidus, Jeniter venato-bullatus rugo- 
susque, areis rhizinarum tenuium fibrosarum vel 
velrucis conspersis praeditus; cortex superior 
K 4, intense viride-flavus, medulla K—, K(C) —, 
J—-. 

Apothecia raria, lateralia vel subterminalia, 
subpedicellata, 5-6 mm. lata; discus planus usque 
subconvexus, carneo-pallidus, glaber usque sub- 
rugulosus, margine albe, isidiis numerosis brevi- 
bus atro-apiculatis ornatus vel albo-crenulatus; 
ascl saccato-clavati, 42.9 > 22y, ad apices 
incrassati, octospori; paraphyses plus minusve 
distineti, septati, simplices, 1.43 XX 38y; sporae 
eloboso-ellipsoideae, incolores, 9.9-11 (—13) x 
3.3—5.7 (—6.6) «; spermogonia non visa. 

Thallus foliaceous, 10-15 em in diam., lobate- 
crenate, 4-6 mm wide, rugulose, with strongly 
imbricated, ascending, inflexed or canaliculate 
lobes, upper cortex obscured by densely growing 
simple or bifureate, white to dark, verruciform 
to vermiform isidia with darka pices, color light 
grayish, or light grayish-vinaceous with oc- 
casional streaks of black, with olive-green 
margins, or dull greenish black, shiny; lower 
cortex pitch-black becoming dark brown to pale 
shiny brown on occasional lobe tips, subshiny, 
weakly veined-bullate and wrinkled, with scat- 
tered patches of thin, stringy rhizinae, or warts; 
upper cortex K+ bright green-yellow, medulla 
Kk—, K(C)—, J (subsection Glauscentes). 

Apothecia rare, terminal or marginal, sub- 
pedicellate, 5-6 mm wide, disk plane to sub- 
convex, flesh-colored, smooth to slightly ridged, 
thalline margin white, with numerous 
black-tipped isidia or white crenulate; 
42.9 xX 22u, with thick hyaline apices, para- 
physes more or less distinct, septate, simple, 
1.43 X 38x, spores 8 in ascus, globose to ellipsoid, 


short 


asel 


198 


with distinct wall, 9.9-11 (-138) x 3.3-5.7 (6.6) pn. 

This species differs from C. chrysantha by its 
erayish coloring and densely isidiate upper 
surface; it differs from C. norvegica in cclor as 
well as in the type of isidia. C. norvegica is 
described with isidia cylindrical to coralloidea- 
ramose developing from furrows or lobe margins; 
these are relatively fine, brown-tipped isidia. 
The isidia of C. scholanderia are coarse, robust, 
tipped with black, simple to bluntly bifurcate, 
densely growing over the thallus, not from 
furrows and less so on the margins of lobes. 
Named after Dr. Peter F. Scholander, who first 
brought it to my attention, in appreciation of his 
many collections from the Brooks Range. A 
ubiquitous species along the Brooks Range, 
around Anaktuvuk Pass growing on rocks, over 
mosses and other lichens, along talus slopes up 
to 3,000 feet (154, 323, 330, 341, 390, 406). 

Type, Lake Schrader, July 20, 1948, P. F. 
Scholander and W. Flagg. 


6. Alectoria irvingii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus subcaespitosus, depressus, subrigidus; 
rami 8 (—10) em longi, dichotome divisi, axilibus 
late-angularibus, ad apices attenuati, subfibrillosi, 
fibrillis ad axes rectos vel recurvos rectangulariter 
dispositis, ad bases robusti, 1-2 mm lati, torti, 
cortice interdum rimoso et aperto, in hemi- 
cychis volventes, intertexti, sulcati, interdum 
foveolati, demum cylindricales vel angulares, 
subcompressi vel ad locum ramorum plani, 
deinde cylindricales, nitidi, olivaceo-brunnei vel 
in partibus umbratis pallidiores, vel atro-brunnei, 
ramis vetustioribus et basibus subnigrescentibus; 


apothecia, spermogonia, soredia, et pseudo- 
cyphellae carentes. 
Thallus subcaespitose, depressed, subrigid, 


branches 8(10) cm long, dichotomously branched, 
with wide-angling axils, apically attenuate, sub- 
fibrillose, with fibrils at right angles to main 
straight or recurved axis, at base robust, 1-2 
mm wide, twisted with cortex occasionally split 
and gaping, winding in half-circle loops, inter- 
tangled, furrowed, with occasional depressions, 
becoming cylindrical or angular, subcompressed 
or plane at point of branching, and then cylindri- 
eal, shining, olive-brown (or pale brown in 
shaded portions), dark brown, older branches 
and base somewhat blackened; apothecia and 
spermogonia absent, subsection Sulcatae. 
Anaktuvuk Pass, over exposed gravel and thin 
soil with P. birulae, C. scholanderti, S. globosus, 
P. omphalodes, growing in mats 15-20 em wide, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


on upper slopes (4,000 feet) of quartzite moun- 
tain. This species looks somewhat like A. niti- 
dula but more robust. Named after Dr. Lawrence 
Irving, first director of Arctic Research Labor- 
atories, Point Barrow, Alaska, through whose 
encouragement Alaskan lichen studies were made 
possible. 


7. Usnea scholanderii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus rectus aut subpendulus, ca. 4-6 em 
altus aut flocci-formis (1-38 em) et flaccidus, 
stramineo- vel pallide viridis, ad basim leniter 
pallide fuscescens, subconstrictus, dense et ir- 
regulariter, dein subsympodialiter ramosus; rami 
primarii usque ad 0.5-1 (—2) mm crassi, teretes,. 
creberrimi, sat attenuatim subfibrillosi, cortice 
non rimoso, plerumque ad _ basim_papillati, 
papillis minutissimis, ad ramos tenuiores rariori- 
bus, ad apices subpapillati vel glabri, valde 
sorediati; soredia primum parva, fariosa, mani- 
ciformiter unita, dein soraia magna (1-2 mm. 
lata) numerosa, globosa alba vel albo-flava. 
fibrillulis multis radiantibus praedita efforman- 
tia; apothecia et spermogonia non visa; medulla. 
K—, cortex K-—, soralia K +  ferrugineo- 
brunnea. 

Thallus erect to somewhat pendulous, 4-6 em 
long, somewhat flaccid, tuft-like (1-8 em high), 
straw- to yellowish-green, base somewhat stained 
rusty-brown, somewhat constricted, densely 
irregularly branched, cylindrical, becoming sub- 
sympodial, apically attenuate, subfibrillose, 
cortex usually papillate at base, subpapillate to 
smooth apically, not cracked, strongly sorediate, 
at first small, farmose, uniting to maniciform 
type, then forming numerous, large (1-2 mm 
wide), globose soralia, white- to white-yellow, 
with many radiating fibrils; apothecia and sper- 
mogonia not seen; medulla K—, cortex K—, 
soralia K + rusty-brown. 

On rocks, with P. sulcata, common, Lake 
Peters (ca. Lake Schrader) leg. P. F. Scholander, 
July 1948. Not to be confused with U. soredifera, 
U. glabatra, U. vainioi, or others listed by Motyka 
under stirps U. sorediiferae. Usneaceae are ap- 
parently scarce on the North Slope. 


In accordance with the Rules of Inter- 
national Nomenclature, the following new 
names are proposed: 


1. Cetraria magnussonii Llano, nom. nov. 

Cetraria arctica H. Magn., in Svensk Tidskr. 
30: 251. 1936, is a later homonym of Cetraria 
arctica (Hook.) Tuck. Magnusson’s species is 


JUNE 1951 


described from material collected in the Yenisei 
region of Siberia and is quite distinct from the 
Tuckerman species which is now referred to the 
genus Dactylina Nyl. 


2. Evernia perfragilis Llano, nom. nov. 

Alectoria arctica Elenk. & Sav. Acta Horti 

Petrop. 32: 73. pl. 1, fig. 1-3. 1912. 

Evernia arctica (Klenk. & Sav.) Lynge in Lich. 

Nov. Zemlya 209. 1928. 

The type material and subsequent collections 
from Novaya Zemlya, as well as Alaska, are all 
sterile. The author concurs with Lynge and Du 
Rietz®? in believing that this species is, mor- 
phologically, more closely allied to the genus 
Evernia. However, the specific epithet is a later 
homonym of Hvernia arctica (Hook.) Tuck., 
i.e., Dactylina arctica (Hook.) Tuck. 

The distribution of lichen species in Fenno 
Seandia, in the Arctic islands north of Europe, 
and on the east and west coasts of southern 
Greenland are better known than those of Siberia, 
Alaska, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. 
Even so, the work of Scandinavians on occasional 
collections from the Canadian Archipelago and 
similarly of the Russians from rare Siberian 
collections has given some hints of the probable 
distribution of lichen species throughout the 
cireumpolar area. Northern Alaska has long 
represented a vacuum in our understanding of 
even the commoner species, and has contributed 
little to add to continuous distributional studies 
of lichens. For this reason, collections from Arctic 
Alaska invariably contain new distributions, 
mainly northern extensions of species. The 
following anomalous distributions are of unusual 
interest since they would indicate a geographical 
pattern of Siberian species extending into North 
America. 


Parmelia birulae Elenk., described from 
material collected in Novaya Zemlya, is a 
common element of the north slope of the 
Brooks Range. Material described to the 
author by N. Hale from his Baffinland col- 
lections of 1950 would indicate that this 
species extends throughout this range, and 
possibly to northern Greenland. An equally 
ubiquitous species is Cetraria chrysantha 
Tuck. with a similar extension. Cetraria si- 
birica H. Magn., first described from the 
Yenisei Region,’ Siberia, was collected at 


3 Du Rierz, G. E., Ark. Bot. 20(11). 1926. 


LLANO: LICHEN FLORA OF ALASKA 


199 


Umiat, although it was not seen in the 
Brooks Range proper. A close relative, C. 
magnussoni, also from the Yenisei, should 
be looked for in Arctic Alaska. EHvernia per- 
fragilis, reported only from Novaya Zemlya, 
is represented in Alaska from two collec- 
tions at Anaktuvuk Pass. Ramalina alm- 
quist Vain., first described from St. Law- 
rence Island, later reported by Degelius from 
Hulten’s Aleutian collections, is a common 
species on the North Slope. This suggests 
that it may be noted inland or on the Si- 
berian coast. 

A further example of this type of distribu- 
tion and also of disrupted range is Umbili- 
caria carolimiana Tuck. Originally described 
from Grandfather Mountain, N. C., it is 
now known to exist on Mount Mitchell and 
Roan Mountain, N. C. Later, it was reported 
from Japan, and then from the Amur Dis- 
trict, Siberia. In a recent publication by the 
author,‘ it is reported a common element of 
the lichen flora on conglomerate, sandstone, 
and quartzite throughout the north slope of 
the Brooks Range. Its eastern North Ameri- 
can terminus is recognized as a classical re- 
lict plant area; its eastern Asiatic terminus 
represents a weakly, if at all, glaciated area, 
The Alaskan finds are from a similarly poor 
ornonglaciated region from Kiana (collections 
of L. J. Palmer) and the Seward Peninsula 
east along the north slope of the mountain 
ranges to Lake Schrader. The intervening 
absence of the species from northern 
Alaska to North Carolina would appear to 
have been the direct result of the last exten- 
sive glaciation. The absence of records from 
localities in North Carolina north along the 
Appalachians to about the southernmost ex- 
tension of the ice sheet, about Jatitude 40°N., 
does not remove the possibility that it may 
yet be found to have a more general dis- 
tribution in eastern United States. It may 
possibly be reported from areas between 
Alaska and North Carolina but the exami- 
nation of hundreds of specimens of Umbili- 
cariaceae from these areas would appear to 
exclude this assumption. 


4A monograph of the family Umbilicartaceae tn 
the Western Hemisphere, 281 pp., 30 maps, IS pl., 
and additional figures. Office of Naval Research, 
Department of the Navy, October 1950. Copies 
may be requested from the Department of Botany, 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. 


200 


Dr. Evans will report more fully upon the 
Cladoniaceae. However, three new records 
include Cl. metacorallijera Asahina, Cl. go- 
necha (Ach.) Asahina, and Cl. pseudomaci- 
lenta Asahina. 

Among the Physciaceae collected, the fol- 
lowing species were aJl noted from the North 
Slope: P. aipolia (Ehrh.) Hampe, P. tenella 
(Seop.) Bitt., P. czliata (Hoffm.) DR., and 
P. teretiuscula (Ach.) Lynge. 

Scholander in 1948 collected two species 
of Lobaria at Bethel on the Kuskokwim 
River, L. scrobiculata (Scop.) Gartner and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 6 


L. hallii (Tuck.) Zahlbr. These are new but 
expected distributions on the northwest 
coast of Alaska. However, he also collected 
the first species at Lake Peters and the sec- 
ond species at Lake Chandler about 30 miles 
from Anaktuvuk Pass. The distribution of 
L. halla is most interesting, for since it was 
first described by Tuckerman from material 
sent him by the Rev. Hall from Oregon, it 
has also been recorded in rare instances 
from southernmost Greenland and northern 
Scandinavia. 


BOTANY.—New or critical Euphorbiaceae from eastern Asia. HStan Kena, De- 
partment of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, China. (Com- 


municated by Egbert H. Walker.) 


This paper consists of descriptions of some 
new species and varieties and a new genus 
from eastern Asia, as well as critical notes 
and new records, reductions, and combina- 
tions. The types of the forms herein de- 
scribed are all preserved in the herbarium of 
the National Taiwan University, Taiwan, 
China. Specimens designated “FRI” belong 
to the Taiwan Forestry Research Institute. 


Phyllanthus Linn. 


1. Phyllanthus indicus (Delz.) Muell. Arg. in 
Linnaea 32: 52. 1863; Merr., Enum. Phili- 
pine FI. Pl. 2: 392. 1923; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees, rev. ed., 355. f. 311. 1936. 

Glochidion longipedicellatum Yamamoto in 

Journ. Soc. Trop. Agr. 5: 178. 1933; S. 
Suzuki in Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 
121. 1936. (New synonym.) 

Taiwan: Lutung, Taipei, Yoshimude 27128 
(FRI); Shinrin-chun, Kaoshiung, S. Sasaki 
27137 (type of G. longipedicellatum), November 
1927. 


Glochidion Forster 


1. Glochidion fortunei Hance var. longistylum, 
var. Nov. 

A typo speciei stylo longiore, 4-5 mm longo, 
differt. 

Leaves elliptic-ovate, the apex caudate-acute, 
apiculate, the base cuneate or acute, 3-5 cm 
long, 2-38 em wide. Capsules 8-10 
diameter, 5-6-celled; persistent calyx about 5 
mm in diameter; calyx-lobes oblong, acute; 
style-column 3-4.5 mm long, thickened and 


mm in 


5-6-lobed at the apex; pedicels 5-6 mm long. 
TatwaNn: Chisan, Kaoshiung, Yamamoto & 
Mori 760, August 14, 1936. 
A variety characterized by the much longer 
styles. 


2. Glochidion fortunei Hance var. megacarpum, 
var. nov. 

A typo speciei capsula majore, 12-14 mm 
diametro, differt. 

Leaves rounded-ovate, 2-5.5 cm long, 1.5— 
2.5 cm wide, the apex rounded or obtuse, mucro- 
nate, the base cuneate, acute. Capsules 12-14 
mm in diameter, 5-6 mm long; persistent calyx 
4—5 mm in diameter; pedicels 3-5 mm long, 
rather stout. 

Taiwan: Kaoshiung-wan, Kaoshiung, Kudo 
& Suzuki 96. April 8, 1929. 

A variety characterized by the much larger 
capsules, about 5-6 mm in length and 12-14 
mm in diameter. 


Agyneia Linn. 


1. Agyneia taiwaniana, sp. nov. 

Agyneia bacciformis A. Juss. misapplied by 
Hayata, Icon. Pl. Formosa 9: 95. 1920; 
Suzuki in Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 
118. 1936. 

Herba prostrata, glabra; rami et ramuli 
compresso-angulati. Folia parva, alternata, el- 
liptica vel oblongo-elliptica vel lanceolata, 1-2 
em longa, 0.4-1 em lata, apice obtusa vel acuta 
et mucronata, basi obtusa vel acuta; costae 
secundariae subdistinctae; petioli vix 1 mm 


longi. Flores # 1.5 mm _ diametro, sepalis 


JUNE 1951 


oblongo-ovatis 0.8-1 mm longis apice albo-mem- 
branaceis cincti, glanduloso-striolati; stamina 
3, filamentis omnino in columnam connatis; 
pedicelli 1.5 mm longi. Flores 9 4.5-4.5 mm lati, 
sepalis oblongo-lanceolatis, 2 mm longis, acu- 
minatis; ovarium cylindrico-obconicum, 1-1.2 
mm longum, 1 mm latum, apice latum, obscure 
depressum; styli 3, liberi, divergentes, bifidi. 
Capsula subglobosa vel ovoidea, 4-4.5 mm longa, 
3-4 mm lata. 

Taiwan, abundant on the west coast of the 
south-central part of the island, near Chiayi, 
Tainan, and Hengchun. 

TarwaNn: Peimen-chiian, Tidi-liu, Tainan, 
K. Mori 110 (type), December 26, 1940; Anpin, 
Tainan, Soma 14420 (FRI); Peimen, Chi-gou, 
Tainan, K. Mori 530; Chiayi, Tainan, H. Keng 
1875; Hengchun, H. Keng 322. 

A species formerly identified by Hayata as 
A. bacciformis, which is a species widely dis- 
tributed over southern China (?), Java, Ceylon, 
India, and Maritius. No authentic Indian 
specimens have been examined, but when com- 
pared with the descriptions of A. bacciformis 
by Hooker (FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 285. 1890) and Pax 
and Hoffman (in Engler, Pflanzenr. 81: 213. 
1922) and with the illustrations by Wight 
(Ieon. Orien. pl. 1992. 1852) and Pax and 
Hoffman (l.c. 213. f.18), this new species appears 
to differ chiefly in the cylindrico-obconical 
ovary and the smaller fruits. The ovary of A. 
bacciformis is broadly ovoid and the fruit is 
about 6 mm long and 5 mm wide. The sizes of 
the floral parts of both sexes also do not agree 
in these two species. 


2. Agyneia goniocladus (Merr. & Chun), comb. 
nov. 

Phyllanthus goniocladus Merr. & Chun in 

Sunyatsenia 2: 260. f. 51, 1935; Tanaka 
& Odashima in Journ. Soc. Trop. Agr. 
372.1938; Masamune, Fl. Kainan. 169. 1943. 

Hainan: Tung-koo-shan, H. Fung 20418 
(paratype of P. goniocladus); Masamune & 
Fukuyama 4, November, 1940. 

In this species the male sepals are thick, with 
white margins, and the styles are small on the 
excavate top of the ovary. These are critical 
characters of Agyneta, rather than of Phyl- 
lanthus. 

This species can also be separated from the 
Formosan A. taiwaniana in the subcylindrical 
ovary and the much shorter filament columns. 
The Agyneia of southern China, as cited by Pax 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 201 


and Hoffman from Kwangtung and Hongkong 
(I. c. 214), is very probably referable to this 
species. 

Liodendron, gen. nov. 

Arbores vel frutices. Folia alterna, crenulato- 
serrulata vel integerrima, membranacea vel 
coriacea, tenuiter pennivenia et  reticulato- 
venosa. Flores axillares, dioici, apetali, disco 
nullo, o racemosi vel spicati, brevissime pedi- 
cellati; @ longius pedicellati, solitarii. Fl. @: 
calyx tenuis, 4-6-partita, segmentis inequalibus, 
imbricatis; stamina 2, filamentis compressis; 
antherae globoso-ellipsoideae, erectae, extrosae, 
loculis distinctis, parallelis, longitudinaliter de- 
hiscentibus; ovarii rudimentum O. Fl. ¢@: 
calyx tenuis, 5-partita, segmentis augustis; 
ovarium oblongo-ovoideum, 3-lcculare; ovula in 
loculis  gemina; styli longiusculi, in ramos 
ubique carnosos papillosos expansi. Drupa 
oblongo-ovoidea, endocarpio duro, fere osseo, 
abortu 1-locularia, 1-sperma. Semina oblongo- 
ovoidea; testa crustacea, albumen carnosum; 
embryo rectus, cotyledonibus latis, planis. 

Type species: Liodendron matsumurae (Koid- 
zumi), comb. nov., infra. 

This new genus is very near Putranjiva, from 
which it differs in the male flowers being in 
axillary racemes and in the definitely 2 stamens, 
while in Putranjiva, the male flowers are solitary 
or in axillary clusters, never in racemes or in 
spikes, and the number of stamens is 2-4. 

The arrangement of flowers in spikes or 
racemes, especially in the staminate plants, is an 
important character in the classification of the 
Euphorbiaceae. Bentham, for instance, in his 
treatment of the Australian Euphoribiaceae, 
divides this family into 5 tribes, tribe 3 (Anti- 
desmeae) differing from tribe 4 (Phyllantheae) 
merely in the “flowers small, in catkin-like 
spikes or in racemes”’ in one, and the “flowers 
in axillary clusters or solitary” in the other 
(cf. Bentham, Fl. Austral. 6: 42. 1875). 

Again, Pax and Hoffmann, in their monograph 
of the Euphoribiaceae, divide the tribe Phyl- 
lantheae into 22 subtribes, the first subtribe 
(Antidesminae) being distinguished from the 
other 21 subtribes (Putranjiva is contained in 
the second subtribe Glochidiinae) only in the 
character of the inflorescence being spicate, 
racemose or paniculate (cf. Pax & Hotfman in 
Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. Ed. 2, 19c: 31. 
19381). 


The systematic position of this new genus is an 


202 


interesting one, as it agrees with the Antidesminae 
of Pax in the male flowers being in spikelike 
racemes, yet it differs from it in the total absence 
of disks or glands in flowers of both sexes. 
Formerly the genus Putranjwa contained four 
species and was considered as occupying a dis- 
continuous area (cf. Pax & Hoffmann in 1. ec. 
19c: 59. 1931). Putranjiva roxburghit Wallich 
is found in India, P. zeylanica Muell. Arg. in 
Ceylon, P. matsumurae Koidz. in the Liukiu 
Islands, and P. integerrima Koidz. in the Bonin 
Islands. In the present treatment the latter two 
species are transferred to Liodendron, as L. 
matsumurae (Koidz.) and L. wntegerriomum 
(Koidz.), respectively. In addition there is the 
Formosan species L. formosanwm. These species 
show that Putranjiva and Liodendron occupy two 
separate natural phytogeographic — regions, 
namely, Putranjiva in India and Ceylon and 
Liodendron in the Bonin and Liukiu Islands and 
in Formosa. The establishment of this new genus 
confirms the phytogeographical relationship be- 
tween Formosa-Liukiu and the Bonin Islands. 
The genus is named in honor of Dr. Hui-Lin 
Li, of the National Taiwan University, in ap- 
preciation of his extensive contributions to our 
knowledge of the flora of eastern Asia. 


1. Liodendron matsumurae (Koidzumi), comb. 
nov, 

Putranjiva roxburghii Wallich, misapplied by 
Matsumura in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 12: 61. 
1898; Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. 
Tokyo 20(8): 25. pl. 2H. 1901. 

Putranjiva matsumurae Koidzumi in Bot. Mag. 
Mag. Tokyo 33: 116. 1919, not Suzuki in 
Sylvia 4(3): 129. 1930, in Masamune, Short 
Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 

A species known only from the Liukiu Islands. 
8. Suzuki reports the presence of it in Formosa. 
Two of his cited specimens were examined, one, 
Taroko, Ariko-banti, Matsuda 1184, is a fruiting 
specimen of Hleocarpus decipiens Hemsley; 
the other, Kwasyoto, Kudo & Mori 1784, is 
nothing more than a sterile specimen of Lioden- 
dron formosanum. 

Liuxiu Isuanps: Herb. No. 22377 (fruiting 
fragment presented by the herbarium of Tokyo 
Imp. Univ., collector and date unknown); 
Amami-Osima, Tashiro 27737. 


2. Liodendron integerrimum (Koidzumi), comb. 
nov. 
Putranjiva integerrima Koidzumi in Bot. Mag. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 6 


Tokyo 33: 117. 1919; Nakai in Bull. Bio- 
geogr. Soc. Japan 1: 259. 1930. 
A species known only from the Bonin Islands. 


3. Liodendron formosanum (Kanehira & Sasaki), 


comb. nov. 
Putranjiva formosana Kaneh. & Sasaki in 
Sasaki, Cat. Gov. Herb. Formosa 312. 


1930, nomen; Simada in Trans. Nat. Hist. 
Soc. Formosa 24: 83. 1934; Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 

Drypetes formosana (Kaneh. & Sasaki) Kane- 
hira, Formos. Trees, rev. ed., 336. f. 929. 
1936. 

Putranjwa roxburghit Wallich, misapphed by 
Hayata, 1. ce. 25. 1904, as to Formosan 
plants. 

Putranjiva matsumurae Koidzumi misapplied 
by Suzuki in Sylvia 4(2): 129. 1933 in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formos. 122. 1936, 
as to Formosan plants. 

Small tree, the branches slender, terete, 
glabrous, the branchlets suleate, obscurely pubes- 
cent. Leaves elliptic to oblong-ovate, 5-8 cm 
long, 3-5 cm wide, the apex acuminate, the base 
obliquely acute, membranaceous at first, later 
coriaceous, the margins entire to crenulate-serru- 
late; petioles 7 mm long. Male flowers spic- 
ate-racemose, axillary, 6-8 cm long, velutinous; 
bracts 2-3-flowered. Female flowers in bud el- 
liptical, shortly pedicellate, 1 mm long; sepals 
4-6, unequal, hispid, imbricate; stamens 2; ma- 
ture female flowers not seen. Drupe ovoid-ellipsoid, 
10-13 mm long, 7-8 mm across, appressed 
white-pubescent, 1-locular, 1-seeded. 

A species known only from Formosa. 

TatwaNn: Sinchashek, Sinchu, Kanehira & 
Sasaki 27130 (syntype of Putranjwa formosana 
Kaneh. & Sasaki); Sasaki 7292, September 21, 
1927; Chukong, Sinchu, Sasaki 7291, January 
1927; Komo, Sinchu, Kudo & Sasaki 140 (type 
of @ inflorescence), April 9, 1929. 

The following specimens are sterile, the size 
of the leaves being larger than the normal forms, 
and they are probably taken from the lower 
branches or basal sprouts: Sizangan, Taipei, 
Nonaka & Kudo 2391; Kizan, Taipei, Masa- 
mune & Suzuki 2393; Hoshautau, Kudo & Mort 
1784; Botel Tobago, Hosokawa 3186. 

Kanehira and Sasaki first proposed this species 
as Putranjiva formosana. Six years later Kanehira 
transferred it into Drypetes formosana, but such 
characters as the two stamens in the male 
flower, the 1-celled, 1-seeded fruit, and the male 


JUNE 1951 


flowers being in spikelike racemes readily 
separate it from Drypetes. In the latter, the 
stamens are 2-4, the fruits are 2-4-celled, 2- 
seeded, and the male flowers are clustered and 
axillary. 

This species is clearly related to Liodendron 
matsumurae, yet it may be readily separated by 
the larger leaves and smaller fruits. The latter 
species has elliptic-oblong leaves, 4-6 cm long, 
2-3.5 em wide, and ovoid fruits, 1.5-2 cm long, 
0.8-1.3 em wide, and is confined to the Liukiu 
Islands. 


Drypetes Vahl. 


1. Drypetes falcata (Merr.) Pax in Engler, 
Pflanzenr. 81 (VI.147.XV): 250. 1922. 

Cyclostemon falcatus Merr. in  Phillippine 
Journ. Sci. 3: 415. 1908; Enum. Philippine 
FI. Pl. 2: 406. 1923. 

Drypetes yamadai Kanehira & Sasaki in 
Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa 21: 145. 
1931, nomen seminud.; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees, rev. ed., 339. f. 293. 1936; Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 119. 1936. 
(New synomym.) 

Taiwan; Hengchun Peninsula, in thickets and 

forests along the seashore. 

Tatwan: Kuraru, Yamada 14573 (syntype of 
D. yamadai, FRI); Konishi 14574 (FRI); 
Matuda 112; Olungbi, Hibino & Suzuki 12586, 
12702; Kimiya 14575 (FRI); Kudo & Suzuki 
15815; H. Keng 1394. 

There is not sufficient difference between D. 
yamadai and D. falcata to treat them as distinct 
species. Kanehira states (in Trans. Nat. Hist. 
Soc. Formosa 21: 145. 1931) that the former is 
“very near Cyclostemon falcata Merr., but differs 
in having glabrous fruits.’”’ However, after ex- 
amining the syntype and a fruiting specimen 
from the type locality, Matuda 112, I find that 
the fruit is appressed-pubescent, rather than 
glabrous. In Merrill’s original description, it is 
stated: “Fructus axillares, solitarii, pedicellis 
5-7 mm longis.” In Formosan plants the fruits 
are solitary or rarely 3-4-clustered and the 
fruit-stalks are usually 1 em long, sometimes up 
to 1.5 cm long. 

D. falcata in the Philippines is known only 
from Camiguin, a small island of the Babuyan 
group, situated between Taiwan and Luzon. 


Daphniphyllum Blume 


1. Daphniphyllum crispifolium, sp. nov. 
Folia elliptica vel oblongo-elliptica, 8-10.5 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 


203 


em longa, 2.5-4 em lata, apice obtusa, apiculata, 
basi obtusa vel acuta, spura nitida, subtus 
papillosa, subglauca, margine valde crispa. 
Racemi fructiferi 7-8 em longi. Fructus oblongo- 
ellipsoideus, 7-8 mm longus, 5-6 mm _ latus, 
rugosus, stigmatibus valde circinatis, pedicellis 
gracilibus 1-1.5 cm longis. 

Tatwan: Nichigetzutan, Taichung, Kudo & 
Sasaki 15336a, 15336b (type), September 19, 
1929. 

This species is near D. oldhamii Rosenth., 
differing in the strongly cripsed leaf-margins, the 
longer and more slender fruiting inflorescences 
and the smaller fruits. 


2. Daphniphyllum reticulatum, sp. nov. 

Folia tenuiter coriacea, obovato-elliptica vel 
elliptica, 8-9 cm longa, 3-3.5 cm lata, apice 
cuspidato-obtusa, basi acuta, supra nitida, sub- 
tus papillosa, nervis lateralibus untrinsecus 
10-20, angulo circiter 60° ortis, rete venularum 
subtus insigniter prominulo, nervis venisque 
supra impressis vel prominulis, subtus  pro- 
minentibus. Racemi fructiferi 6 cm_ longi. 
Fructus ellipsoideo-ovideus, circiter 8 mm longus 
et 5 mm latus, basi et apice rotundatus, apice 
stigmatiferus, revolutus, pubescens; pedicellis 
4—5 mm longis. 

Tarwan: Taroko, Hualien, S. Suzuki 9880 
(type), December 30, 1931; Hengchun, Mount 
Hiirasan, HE. Matuda 919; Kuskus, Kudo & 
Suzuki 15947. 

A species characterized by the finely reticulate 
veinlets very prominent on the lower surface of 
the leaves and by the very short fruiting stalks. 


3. Daphniphyllum formosanum, sp. nov. 
Frutex, ramulis subgracilibus. Folia coriacea, 
oblonga vel oblongo-elliptica, 4-7 em longa, 
2-2.5 em lata, apice acuta, apiculata, basi late 
cuneata, supra nitida, subtus papillosa, costa 
plana, subtus prominente elevata, nervis later- 
alibus untrinsecus 12-15, margine subintegra, 
revoluta vel crispa, petiolis 1.2-2 em _ longis, 
supra leviter canaliculatis. Racemi fructiferi 
4-5 em. longi, graciles. Fructus ovideus, 7-9 


mm longus, apice rotundatus, basi acutus, 
stigmatibus circinatis, persistentibus, calyce 


basi adnata, 5-dentata, lobis lneari-lanceolatis, 
crenatis, saepius persistentibus. 

Tatwan: Hikizangan, Taipei, 7. Suzukt 
4814, July 26, 1932; Gukutu, Hualien, BP. 
Matuda 1155 (Type), August 5, 1918; Nai- 
buntoge, Kaoshiung, Kudo & Suzuki 1615, 
April 10, 1980. 


204 


This is the only known species in Formosa 
with persistent calyx in the fruiting stage. All its 
characters agree well with that of D. marchadii 
Croizat and Metcalf Gm Lingnan Sci. Journ. 
20: 117. 1942) or D. salicifolium Chien (in 
Contr. Biol. Lab. Sci. Soc. China 8: 242. 1933) 
of southwestern China, except the much smaller 
fruits and the longer, circinate stigmas. No 
authentic specimens of the latter species have 
been seen. This new species may also be readily 
separated from D. oldhamii by its smaller leaves 
with prominent apicules at the apex and by the 
persistent calyx at the base of the fruit. 


Mercurialis Linn. 


1. Mercurialis leiocarpa Sieb. & Suce. var. 
transmorrisonensis (Hayata), comb. nov. 
Mercurialis levocarpa Sieb. & Zuec., mis- 
applied by Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. 
Univ. Tokyo 25: 194. 1908. 5. Suzuki in 
Sylvia 4: 148. 1933, in Masamune, Short 
Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 
Mercurialis transmorrisonensis Hayata, Icon. 
Pl. Formosa 5: 199. f. 75. 1915. 

Taiwan; throughout the island, more common 
in the central mountain regions. 

Tatwan: Mount Kanin, Fukuyama 34; Mount 
Taiping, S. Suzuki 383, 3839; Mount Tentana, 
Simada 14992 (FRI); Mount Arisan, Sizmada 
796; Mount Dabusan, Sasaki 2144, Matuda 
1500; Ariko-banti, Matuda 1199; Pintung, 
Hosokawa 5408; Taroko, S. Suzuki 9684; Mount 
Nokosan, Fukuyama 4682. 

The typical form of the species is distributed 
in Indo-China, Siam, southern China (Yunnan 
to Hupeh), and Japan. Hayata describes this 
variety as an independent species and states that 
it is “‘very near M. leiocarpa Sieb. & Zucc., but 
differs from it in having less verrucose ovary with 
the much spreading stigma and the less vetru- 
cose or nearly smooth capsules; the distinction 
of this plant from M. leiocarpa is even more 
clear in the living specimen.” The actual dis- 
tinctive characters of this Formosan plant are 
probably in the stamens. The stamens in the 
typical form are 16-20 (cf. Muell. Arg.) or 
14-20 (cf. Pax), whereas in this variety there 
are only about 10. Furthermore, in this variety 
the filaments are usually 2-3-connate at the 
base, showing the tendency to monadelphy. 


Alchornea Swartz 


1. Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Muell. Arg. 
var. formosae (Muell. Arg.) Pax in Engler, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


Pflanzenr. 63: (IV. 147. VIII) 248. 1914. 
Alchornea kelungensis Hayata, Icon. Pl. For- 
mosa 9: 103. 1920; Kanehira, Formosa 
Trees, rev. ed., 329. 1936; S. Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 118. 1936. 
(New synonym.) 
Tatwan: Taipei, Sasaki 
Matuda 1144, Simada 1145. 
This variety differs from the typical form of the 
species from southern China chiefly in the shorter 
(6-8 mm long) and usually 2-3-lobulate styles. 
In the typical form, the styles are longer (8-12 
mm) and entire at the apex. 


14423; Keelung, 


2. Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Muell. Arg. 
var. loochoensis (Hayata), comb. nov. 
Alchornea loochoensis Hayata, Icon. Pl. For- 
mosa 9: 103. 1920. 
Alchornea trewioides Muell. Arg., misapplied 
by Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo 
23: 47. pl. 4A. 1904. 

Livuxiu Isuanps: Guo-teu, Kanestro 195; 
Yu-na-guo-tau, Simada 14424 (FRI). 

This variety can be distinguished from var. 
formosae by the following characters in the 
female flowers: the lanceolate-acuminate sepals, 
the globose ovary and the much shorter styles 
(8 mm long); whereas in the Formosan plants, 
the sepals are triangular-acuminate, the ovary is 
depressed globose, and the styles are somewhat 
longer (6-8 mm long). 


Acalypha Linn. 


1. Acalypha (Sect. Capillipes 
hontauyuensis, sp. nov. 

Frutex; ramuli sericeo-tomentosi, censperse 
sulcati. Folia tenuiter chartacea, longe petiolata, 
cordato-orbiculata, 12-18 em longa, 12-16 
cm lata, apice cordato-acuminata, basi oblique 
truncato-cordata, margine crenato-serrata, 5- 
nervia, utrinque subglabra et ad costam nervos- 
que dense hirsuta, petiolis 8-20 em _ longis, 
gracilibus, sericeo-tomentosis. Spicae fl. o@& 
ignotae. Spicae fl. @ gracillimae, axillares, 
solitariae, 6-10 cm longae, pedunculis 0.5-2 
cm longis, hirsutis, floribus remotis  spicatis, 
sessilibus, lanceolatis, 3-4 mm longis, hirsutis. 
Fl. 2: bractea unica minuta, triangularis, 1 mm 
longa, extus densissime hirsuta; sepala 3, ovata, 
1 mm longa, intus concava, subglabra, extus 
hirsuta; styli 2.5-3 mm longi, graciles, glabri. 

Tatwan: Hontauyu (Botel Tobago), Hoso- 
kawa SO47 (type), July 4, 1935; Hosokawa 
8165, July 16, 1935. 


Muell. Arg.) 


JUNE 1951 


This species and A. swrenbiensis Yamamoto 
are characterized by the sessile female flowers 
with very minute and nonaccrescent bracts, while 
in the other species of the genus the female 
flowers when sessile are generally provided with 
large and showy bracts, usually enclosing the 
mature capsules. 


Euphorbia Linn. 


1. Euphorbia (Sect. Tithymalus Boiss.) shou- 
anensis, Sp. nov. 

Caules villosi, crassi, erecti. Folia sessilia, 
membranacea, uninervia, lineari-oblonga vel 
lineari-lanceolata, 2-5 em longa, 8-14 mm lata, 
apice acuta, basi attenuata, subtus pubescentia. 
Umbellaria primaria ovato-lanceolata, 2.5-5 
em longa. Triplo cymae terminales. Involucrum 
centrale campanulatum, stipitatum, 3.5 mm 
longum, 2.5-3 mm diametro, extus glabrum, 
intus hirtellum, lobis 4 (5 2), ovato-oblongis, 
ciliatis, giandulis 4, transversis, reinformibus, 
stipitatis. Flores #@ 12, bracteolis spathuli- 
formibus, insertis, margine apicem versus densis- 
sime pilosis. Flores @ pedicellis elongatis, ex- 
serti; ovarium ovoideo-globosum, 2 mm longum, 
trisulcatum, glandulis verrucosis compressis bre- 
vibus conicis obtusissimis obsitum, stylis 3, 
2 mm longis, basi brevissime connatis, apice 
breviter bifidis, stigmatibus subincrassatis. In- 
volucrum sterile 2 mm longum, 1.5 mm dia- 
metro; ovarilum minutum. 

TatwaNn: Shashan, Shouan, Chiayi, Tainan, 
altitude 1,500 m, 7. Suzuki 20910 type), Novem- 
ber 10, 1940. 

This species is distinctly characterized by the 
triplo-cymose inflorescence and the involucral 
structures. In primary cymes, the umbellate 
_ leaves are 5, ovate-lanceolate, 2-5 cm long, 1.5 
em wide and with acute apex; the umbellate 
branches are 5, the central one being much 
shorter. In secondary cymes, the umbellate 
leaves are 3, ovate-rounded, 1.5 em long, 1 em 
wide and with very abtuse apex; the umbellate 
branches are 3. In tertiary cymes, the umbellate 
leaves are 3, subrounded, 8 mm long and 7 mm 
wide. The central fertile involucre is single, 
naked, campanulate, stalked, 3.5-4 mm long 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 205 


and 2.5-3 mm in diameter. Lateral sterile in- 
volucres are 3, turbinate, 2 mm Jong, 1.5 mm 
in diameter and short-stalked, each concealed 
in 2 clasping floral leaves (or bracts) opposite 
to the tertiary umbellate leaves. 

In the central fertile involucre, the lobes are 
4 (5 2?) ovate-oblong, the glands are 4, trans- 
versely reniform, and substalked. Male flowers 
are about 12. The ovary is ovoid-globose, ex- 
serted, and the styles are nearly free except at 
the very base. In lateral sterile involucres, the 
lobes and glands are not very distinct, the 
rudimentary flowers are numerous and_ the 
rudimentary ovary is included. 


2. Euphorbia prostrata Ait., Hort. Kew. 2: 
136. 1789; Bernard, Icon. Bogor. 4: 51. 
pl. 816. 1916; Merr., Enum. Philippine 
Fl. Pl. 2: 463. 1928. 

Huphorbia liukiuensis Hayata, misapplied by 
Sasaki, Cat. Gov. Herb. Formosa 305. 1930; 
Suzuki in Sylvia 4: 155. 1933, in Masamune, 
Short, Fl. Formosa 119. 1935. 

Chamaesyce liukiuensis (Hayata) Hara in 
Journ. Jap. Bot. 14: 356. 1938. 

Taiwan, distributed nearly throughout the 

whole island, pantropical. 

Tatwan: Northern part, S. Suzuki 12414, 
12257, Masamune & Suzuki 1742, Mori 8379, 
Simada 1738, 1736, 3211, Sasaki 1741; southern 
part, Simada 14678 (FRI), Mori 101, Hosokawa 
1939, 1941; eastern part, S. Suzuki 1277, 1667, 
10607; Pescadores, Kudo & Mori 3070, Cheng 
5071. 

This is a new record for the flora of Formosa. 
This species is similar in general appearance to 
EL. thymifolia, but it may be distinguished from 
the latter by the longer stalks of the involucre, 
the more prominent persistent columnella of 
the cocci, the shorter stalks of the glands, and the 
less hirsute cocci. 

I have not seen the type of Hayata’s #. 
liukiuensis, a species of Liukiu. However, the 
four specimens deposited in the herbarium of the 
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, i.e., Hira- 
tuka 14676, Soma 14677, Simada 14678, and 
Yasukawa 14679, all from Taiwan and de- 
termined by 8. Sasaki as doubtfully of this 
species, agree exactly with EF. prostrata. 


206 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ZOOLOGY .—New distributional records for two athecate hydroids, Ccrdylophora 
lacustris and Candelabrum sp., from the west coast of North America, with revi- 
sions of their nomenclature. Cappt Hann, Mills College, Oakland, and Univer- 
sity of California, Berkeley, and G. F. Gwiuuiam, University of California, 
Berkeley. (Communicated by F. M. Bayer.) 


I. CorDYLOPHORA 


In August 1950 an unidentified hydroid 
was found in a collection at the University 
of California at Berkeley. The label bore no 
collection date or collector’s name, but it 
did report the locality from which the ani- 
mal was taken as Antioch, Calif., which is 
located on the San Joaquin River 5 miles 
upstream from its Junction with the Sacra- 
mento River.The hydroid was subsequently 
identified as the widely distributed fresh- 
and brackish-water form, Cordylophora 
lacustris Allman. 

On August 26, 1950, the writers found 
this hydroid growing on pieces of old manila 
rope suspended from a floating dock in the 
San Joaquin River at Antioch. The ropes 
were literally covered with colonies of vary- 
ing sizes. A sample of the river water taken 
at this time showed a chlorinity of 1.02 parts 
per thousand (5.4 per cent of sea water). 

What appears to be the first recognizable 
description of this hydroid was that of All- 
man (1844), who found it in the docks of 
the Grand Canal, Dublin, Ireland. Roch 
(1924) ina paper dealing with many aspects 
of the biology of this hydroid reviewed its 
distribution, listing the followimg general 
localities in which Cordylophora occurred: 
Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Fin- 
land, Esthonia, Courland (now part of 
Lithuania), Russia, France, Belgium, Eng- 
land, Ireland, United States, Brazil, Egypt, 
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, China. 

In North America, Leidy (1870) first de- 
tected this hydroid at Newport, R. I., and 
later in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. 
Since that time C. lacustris has been found 
in several localities in North America, some 
of them a considerable distance inland. 

Fraser (1944, p. 35) reports the American 
distribution as: ‘“Newport, R. I. (Leidy); 
St. Andrews, Gaspé, Seven Islands (Staf- 
ford); New England (Kingsley); Woods 
Hole (Nutting); several ponds near Woods 
Hole, Marthas Vineyard (Hargitt); Mira- 
michi estuary, Frenier Beach, La. (Fraser); 


Gatun locks, Panama canal.” In addition, 
Ward and Whipple (1945) list the follow- 
ing: Illinois River at Havana, Ill.; Miss- 
issipp1 River at Granite City and at Hast 
St. Louis, Ill.; Arkansas River at Little 
Rock, Ark.; and the Red River at Shreve- 
port, La. 

The present report is the first record of 
the existence of this organism on the west 
coast of North America. This was not en- 
tirely unexpected, as Fraser (1946, p. 101) 
stated: ‘It has not yet been reported from 
the eastern Pacific, but it has extended along 
the whole length of the North American 
Atlantic, and as it has entered the Panama 
canal as far as the Gatun locks, it may show 
up in the Pacific before long.” 

Several varieties of C. lacustris have been 
described. Schulze (1921) mentions the 
forms albicola, transiens, and whiteleggev. 
Fyfe (1929) described a new subspecies 
(otagoensis) from New Zealand. Earlier 
Leidy (1870) gave to what he recognized as 
a small variety of C. lacustris the name 
C. americana. Briggs (1931) points out that 
C’. lacustris is extremely variable in growth 
form and that growth form may depend 
upon salinity. It appears that all the named 
subspecies and forms of C. lacustris are 
nothing more than variations inhabit. 
The present writers have found such ex- 
tensive variation in the specimens studied 
that the recognition of named varieties seems 
to have no taxonomic significance. 

There is some doubt as to whether the 
proper specific name of Cordylophora is 
lacustris or caspia. Pallas (1771) described 
a hydroid from the Caspian Sea as Tubularia 
caspia. This is said by some to be identical 
with C. lacustris Allman (Roch, 1924; 
Cordero, 1941). Other writers feel that 
Pallas’ description is too vague to permit an 
exact diagnosis (Briggs, 1931; Bedot as 
quoted by Briggs) and prefer to retain C. 
lacustris. 

The present writers have studied the 
Pallas description and find it so generalized 
that it might as well refer to many other 


JUNE 1951 


hydroids as to C. lacustris. Further, there 
seem to be no valid records of this hydroid 
from the Caspian Sea since the time of 
Pallas. Because of this, coupled with the 
fact that C. lacustris Allman has had such 
wide usage, the present writers choose to 
retain Allman’s name until it can be clearly 
shown that Tubularia caspia Pallas is iden- 
tical with Cordylophora lacustris Allman. 

Another nomenclatural problem is brought 
up by Finlay (1928). Finlay declares that 
the family Clavidae to which Cordylophora 
belongs is an invalid name due to preoc- 
cupation by the gastropod genus Clava 
Martyn (1784) over the hydroid genus 
Clava Gmelin (1791). Finlay suggests that 
the name Clavidae be replaced by the name 
Cordylophoridae, Cordylophora being the 
next available generic name. This solution 
changes the type genus of the family, an 
action for which there is no valid taxonomic 
reason, and, further, Finlay fails to reassign 
the species of Clava (the hydroids) to any 
other genus. In considering this matter it 
has been pointed out to us by Dr. H. A. 
Rehder, curator of mollusks, U.S. National 
Museum, that the system used by Martyn 
in his “Universal Conchologist” is non- 
Linnaean, and that Martyn’s names are 
therefore not available and do not preoc- 
cupy. The change suggested by Finlay 
(op. cit.) was therefore unnecessary, and the 
hydroid genus Clava Gmelin (1791) stands 
as the valid type of the family Clavidae. 

Material from the University of California 
collection (U.S.N.M. no. 49727), the San 
Pablo Reservoir, and fresh material from 
Antioch (U.S.N.M. no. 49726) has been 
carefully examined and compared and no 
characters separating these from C. lacustris 
have been found. 


Family CLavipaE 
Genus Cordylophora Allman, 1844 
Cordylophora lacustris Allman 


Colony: Growth form variable. Sometimes a 
main axis with hydranths given off alternately, 
sometimes more diffuse and irregular, or colony 
branched, lacking a main axis. Hydrocaulus aris- 
ing from creeping hydrorhizae. Perisare well de- 
veloped. Longest hydrocaulus observed approxi- 
mately 6 cm. 

Trophosome: Hydranth clavate, pedicellate, 


HAND AND GWILLIAM: TWO ATHECATE HYDROIDS 


207 


with up to 30 scattered, filiform tentacles. Peri- 
sare at bases of pedicels often annulated, but 
occasionally smooth or “corrugated” on one side 
only. Perisare extending only to base of hydranth. 
Tentacles quite extensile, mouth terminal. Nemat- 
ocysts; desmonemes (4.0-6.0 by 3.0-4.0u) and 
microbasic euryteles (7.5-11.0 by 4.0-4.5y). 

Gonosome: Dioecious. Sporosacs sessile or 
borne on short pedicels which may or may not 
be annulated at their bases as in trophosome. 
Gonophores enclosed in a thin perisarc, and 
arise from hydrocauli or pedicels. In the female 
the eggs are extruded from the generative tissue 
into a jelly-like mass. The generative tissue re- 
gresses as the eggs are extruded, finally leaving a 
variable number (approximately 1-8) of recog- 
nizable ova. At this site the ova develop into 
planulae and are then released. In general, the 
female gonophores tend to be more spherical 
than the male. In life female gonophores pinkish, 
male whitish. 

Habitat and distribution: On sticks, ropes, float- 
ing docks, ete. in fresh or brackish water. In 
California, C. lacustris occurs at Antioch, and 
has been reported from Lake Merced, San Fran- 
cisco (Dr. R. C. Miller, California Acad. Sci., 
personal communication) and from the San Pablo 
reservoir system, E] Cerrito, California (Dr. H. 
Kirby, Jr., Univ. California, Berkeley, personal 
communication). Also, according to Dr. T. Kin- 
caid, Univ. Washington, Seattle (in litt.) this 
species occurs in the Puget Sound area. It has 
evidently been in California for a number of 
years. The old University of California specimen 
mentioned above is thought to be 20 to 40 years 
old. 


II. CANDELABRUM 


On May 6, 1950, three specimens of 
Candelabrum sp. (= Myriothela sp.) were 
collected from a pholad hole on the under- 
surface of a rock at approximately the zero 
foot tide level (mean lower low water) at 
Pigeon Point, San Mateo County, Calif. 
The authors do not feel that this is sufficient 
material to warrant specific identification, 
especially since none of the polyps bear 
mature gonophores. Several attempts were 
made to obtain more material, but thorough 
searching has failed to reveal the presence of 
further specimens. It may be that it is a 
stray in the intertidal zone and exists in 
numbers subtidally. Some indication of this 
may be gained from the fact that several 


208 


of the known species of Candelabrum are 
subtidal forms. Of the generic identification, 
we feel that there is no doubt. 

As nearly as the authors have been able 
to determine there are now nine valid species 
of this genus. The first was described as 
Lucernaria phrygia by Fabricius (1780). 
This was later redescribed by Sars (1850), 
apparently unaware of Fabricius’ descrip- 
tion, as Myriothela arctica. De Blainville 
(1830; reprinted, 1834) realized that Fabri- 
clus’ animal was not a Lucernaria and pro- 
posed the name Candelabrum for it. He in- 
dicated at the same time that it was related 
to the Sipunculids. Allman (1872, p. 381) 
states: ‘‘De Blainville, seeing that Fabri- 
cius’s animal had no relation with Lucer- 
naria, constituted for it, in 1834, his genus 
Candelabrum, and as this name has priority 
over Myriothela, it 1s accepted by Agassiz 
as the legitimate name of the genus.” All- 
man goes on to explain that De Blainville 
did not recognize its true affinities, while 
Sars did. He chooses to retain Mvyriothela 
Sars in spite of the law of priority, an action 
that the present authors do not deem justi- 
fied. The replacement of the name M/yriothela 
by Candelabrum necessitates the renaming 
of this monogeneric family, which we now 
designate as the Candelabridae (= Myrio- 
thelidae Allman). 

In addition tc Candelabrum phrygium, 
the other known species and the localities 
from which they were taken are: C. mitrum 
(off coast of Norway near Bergen, deep 
water, Bonnevie, 1898); C. minutum (near 
Troms6, Nerway, intertidal?, Bonnevie, 
1898); C. verrucosum (locality not given, 
Bonnevie, 1898); C. gigantewm (Greenland 
Sea, deep water, Bonnevie, 1898); C. austro- 
georgiae (cff Cumberland Bay, South Geor- 
gia Island, deep water, Jéaderholm, 1904); 
C. cocksii (Falmouth, England, intertidal, 
Cocks, 1849, as a nomen nudum; Cocks, 
1853, name validated); C. harrisoni (New 
South Wales, Australia, intertidal, Briggs, 
1928); C. australe (New South Wales, 
Australia, intertidal, Briggs, 1928). 

Fraser (1946, p. 168) reports that only one 
species is known from North America 
(C. pyrygium) and states concerning it: 
“The only American location so far reported 
is off Grand Manan Island, at. the mouth 
of the bay of Fundy, but its range extends 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


eastward by way of Greenland and Iceland 
to Great Britain, Norway, Nova Zembla, 
and the Siberian Polar Sea.” 


Family CANDELABRIDAE, nom. nov. 
Genus Candelabrum de Blainville, 1830 
Candelabrum, sp. ind. 


U.S. N. M. no. 49725. 

Hydranth: Not branched, solitary, naked and 
arising from a creeping hydrorhiza or possibly a 
disc. Hydrorhizae invested with perisare. Ex- 
clusive of hydrorhizae, polyp divisible into two 
zones; a distal tentacle-bearing zone and a proxi- 
mal tentacle-free blastostylar zone. The tentacle- 
bearing zone composes five-sixths or more of the 
polyp length and bears approximately 500 tenta- 
cles in the adult; cylindrical, approximately the 
same diameter throughout. Tentacles densely 
packed, short, capitate and not arranged in any 
discernible pattern. Mouth terminal. Blastostylar 
zone swollen, of a slightly greater diameter than 
the tentacle bearing zone. Sometimes separated 
from tentacle-bearing zone by a constriction; at 
the proximal end tapering sharply to hydrorhiza. 
Structures referred to by Allman (1875) as “clas- 
pers” not present on specimens examined. Blasto- 
styles giving rise to more than one gonophore. 
Largest specimen (preserved) 2.5 em long by 
0.15 em. in diameter (including the tentacle .) 


Of the known species of Candelabrum, 
the species described above most closely 
resembles Candelabrum harrisoni Briggs. 
In fact there are no obvious differences, 
but in view of the unusual distribution which 
Briggs’ species would then have, plus the 
paucity of material available, it does not 
seem wise to make the two conspecific at this 
time. 


LITERATURE CITED 


AuumMAN, G. J. Synopsis of the genera and species 
of zoophytes inhabiting the fresh waters of Ire- 
land. Ann. Nat. Hist. (1) 13: 328-333. 1844. 

. A monograph of gymnoblastic or tubularvan 

hydroids 2: 381-383. 1872. 

. On the structure and development of Myrio- 
thela. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 165 (2): 
549-572. 1875. 

Buainviuie£, H. M.D. ve. Dictionnaire des sciences 
naturelles 60: 284. 1830. 

. Manuel d’actinologie. Paris, 1834. 

BonnEvIE, K. Zur Systematik der Hydroiden. Zeit- 
schr. fiir Wiss. Zool. 63: 465-493. 1898. 

Briaes, EH. A. Studies in Australian athecate hy- 
droids. Rec. Austral. Mus. Sydney 16: 305- 
315. 1928. 


JUNE 1951 


. Notes on Australian athecate hydroids. Rec. 
Austral. Mus. Sydney. 18: 279-282. 1931. 
Cocks, W. P. Contributions to the fauna of Fal- 
mouth. Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polytech. Soc. 

17: 38-102. 1849. 

. Contributions to the fauna of Falmouth, 
1853. Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polytech Soc. 
21: 28-36. 1853. 

CorpErRo, E. H. Observaciones sobre algunas es- 
pectes sudamericanas de género Hydra. II. 
Hydra y Cordylophora en el Uruguay. Ann. 
Acad. Brasil. Sci. 13: 173-184 figs. 1-26. 1941. 

Fasricius, O. Fauna Groenlandica. 1780. 

Fintay, H. J. Notes on New Zealand and Aus- 
tralian gymnoblastic hydroids. Austral. Zool. 
5: 257-261. 1928. 

Fraser, C. M. Hydroids of the Atlantic coast of 
North America. Toronto, 1944. 

. Distribution and relationship in American 
hydroids. Toronto, 1946. 

Fyre, M. A new fresh water hydroid from Otago 
(New Zealand). Trans. Proc. New Zealand 
Inst. 59 (4): 813-823. 1929. 

Gein, J. F. In Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 
13, 4(@)¢ silsil, Wahl. 


HOFFMAN: DIPLOPOD FAMILY CAMPODESMIDAE 


209 


JApernHoim, I. Mitteilungen tiber einige von der 
Schwedischen Antarctic-Expedition 1901-1903 
eingesammelte Hydroiden. Arch. Zool. Exp. et 
Gen. Notes et Revue, ser. 4, 3 (1): i-xiv. 1904. 

Letpy, J. [The Proceedings, Oct. 18, 1870.] Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 22: 113. 1870. 

Martyn, T. Universal conchologisi 1: fig. 12. 1784. 

Pauuas, P. 8. Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen 
des Russischen Reichs 1(5): 1-504, 24 pls. St. 
Petersburg, 1771. 

Rocu, F. Experimentelle Untersuchungen an 
Cordylophora caspia (Pallas) etc. Zeitschr. 
Morph. und Okol. Tiere. 2: 350-426; 667-670. 
1924. 

Sars, M. Beretning om en i Sommeren 1849 fore- 
tagen Zoologisk reise 1 Lofoten og Finmarken. 
Nyt. Mag. Naturvid. Christiana 6: 121-211. 
1850. 

Scuuuze, P. Die Hydroiden der Umgebung Berlins 
mit besonderer Bervicksichtigung der Binnen- 
landformen von Cordylophora. Biol. Zentralbl. 
41: 211-237. 1921. 

Warp, H. B., and Wutreein, G. C. Fresh water 
biology. New York, 1945. 


ZOOLOGY .—The diplopod family Campodesmidae (Polydesmida). RicHarp L. 
HorrMan, Clifton Forge, Va. (Communicated by E. A. Chapin.) 


The name Campodesmidae was proposed 
in 1895 by O. F. Cook. Appearing in a key to 
the tropical African families of polydesmoid 
millipeds, the original description was rather 
inadequate. Subsequently, in several publica- 
tions cited below, additional information (of 
a fragmentary nature) was given about the 
family and its two genera, but later workers 
have never been able to derive a very satis- 
factory idea of the nature of the group. It is 
a matter of some interest that campodesmids 
have never been encountered by other 
workers, who have managed to come across 
most of the other West African genera 
described by Cook. 

Since the great majority of Cook’s 
Liberian species have never been adequately 
described and have been mostly ignored by 
later workers, it appears necessary to re- 
describe them. Through the unfailing co- 
operation of Dr. EK. A. Chapin, I have been 
able to study the Cook collection now in the 
U.S. National Museum. The present paper, 
the first of a planned series, is concerned 
with the campodesmids and with the system- 
atic position of the family. 


Family CampopEsMIDAE Cook 


Campodesmidae Cook, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 18: 
82. 1895; Amer. Nat. 30: 414. 1896. 


Diagnosis.—Male gonopods large, prominent, 
protruding from a large oval sternal aperture. 
Coxae subcylindrical, attached loosely to each 
other, largely concealed within the aperture. Pre- 
femur small, with a large unbranched laminate 
prefemoral process. No distinction between femur 
and tibiotarsus, the latter distally elongate, slen- 
der, forming nearly a complete circle. 

Gnathochilarium and mandibles typical of the 
usual polydesmoid form. 

Antennae of moderate heaviness, with a few 
scattered hairs. Four sensory cones, concealed 
within the seventh article. 

Head finely granular, with a well-defined verti- 
gical groove. A prominent ovoid longitudinal 
swelling immediately under each antennal socket. 
Clypeal area much swollen, raised above level of 
frons, glabrous. 

Collum rather small, not concealing the head 
and much exceeded in width by the keels of the 
second segment. 

Keels of midbody segments well developed, 
wide as body cavity but narrow and widely 


210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 6 


Fias. 1-5.—1, Campodesmus carbonarius, dorsal view of head and first three segments; 2, same, 
antenna, much enlarged; 3, ventral view of last two segments; 4, left male gonopod, mesial aspect; 5, 
Tropidesmus jugosus, dorsal view of head and first three segments. Figures drawn to different scales. 


JUNE 1951 


separated from each other. Keels strongly de- 
pressed causing tergites to be highly arched. 

Repugnatorial pores small, not on special 
stalks, occurring only on segments 5 and 7. 

Anal segment large, not concealed by nine- 
teenth, with three large tubercules on each side, 
distally bent slightly downward. 

Preanal scale small, trapezoid, with two elon- 
gate setiferous tubercules. Anal valves nearly 
plane, each with a median tubercule. 

Sternites rather broad and smooth, without 
special modifications. 

Legs of moderate length and size, without 
spines, lobes, or tarsal pads. 

Pleurites without carinae or large tubercules. 

Range-—Known only from Liberia. 

Genera included—Two, which may be sepa- 
rated as follows: 


1. Tergites each with a cluster of three elongate 
upright tubercules on each side of middle. 
Campodesmus 
Tergites each bearing two transverse rows, each 

of six short longitudinal carinae. 
Tropidesmus 


Genus Campodesmus Cook 


Campodesmus Cook, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 18: 82. 
1895. 


Generotype—C. carbonartus Cook, by mono- 
typy. 

Diagnosis.—With the characters of the family, 
particularly distinguished by the ornamentation 
of the tergites. Collum with a row of 10 small 
tubercules on the anterior margin; a second row 
of eight larger tubercules across the middle. On 
the caudal half are two still larger tubercules with 
a small one laterad to each. Tergites of midbody 
segments with a cluster of three tubercules on 
each side of middle, these largest at midbody and 
diminishing towards the ends. Each keel bears 
three rounded tubercules near the outer end and 
two small ones at the base. 


Campodesmus carbonarius Cook 


Type specimen.—U. 8. Nat. Mus., adult male, 
collected at Mount Coffee, western Liberia, by 
O. F. Cook. 

Diagnosis.—With the characters of the genus. 
Dorsal color dark brown, underparts whitish. 
Length, from 28 to 38 mm. 

Male gonopods of the form represented in 
Fig. 4. 


HOFFMAN: DIPLOPOD FAMILY CAMPODESMIDAE 


211 


Genus Tropidesmus Cook 
Tropidesmus Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 414. 1896. 


Generotype.—T. jugosus Cook, by monotypy. 

Diagnosis.—Differing from Campodesmus 
chiefly in the nature of the ornamentation and in 
size and shape of the collum, as illustrated. 
Also, the second segment is not as wide and is 
somewhat more bent anteriorly. Collum with 
six tubercules along the front margin; eight in 
the second row (of which those at the ends are 
rounded, the others elongate); and six tubercules 
in the third row, of which the middle two are 
much enlarged. Second segment with keels pro- 
duced forward, partially embracing and sub- 
tending the collum; dorsally with four short 
middorsal carinae and smaller indistinct tuber- 
cules laterad. On following segments the dorsal 
carinae increase to 12, in two transverse rows 
of six each. A single large swelling at the end of 
each keel. 


Tropidesmus jugosus Cook 


Type specimen.—U. 8. Nat. Mus. (adult 
male?)! collected at Mount Coffee, Liberia, by 
O. F. Cook. 

Diagnosis.—W ith the characters of the genus. 
Size and color about the same as in Campodesmus. 
The male gonopods may be expected to present 
additional specific and generic characters. 


SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF 
THE CAMPODESMIDAE 


The campodesmids seem not to be closely 
related to any other of the African poly- 
desmoid millipeds. The family clearly falls 
into the group for which Brolemann in 1916 
proposed the name “Leptodesmina.” This 
ensemble is characterized by the fact that 
the coxae of the male gonopods are only 
shghtly attached together, are not attached 
to the sternal aperture, and are generally con- 
cealed within the body when at rest. 

In Attems’ most recent key to the poly- 
desmoid families (1937), Campodesmus runs 
down to the family Leptodesmidae (properly 
Chelodesmidae, jide Hoffman, 1950). The 


1The original description mentions an adult 
male. The vial of material sent to me was labeled 
“Type”’ but contained only immature specimens. 
Presumably the mature specimen was taken out 
and is for the present misplaced in the body of the 
Museum collection. 


212 


configuration of the gonopod certainly 
vindicates this allocation, as the large pre- 
femoral process occurs in nearly all of the 
South American chelodesmid genera. In 
other characters, however, no particular 
relationship can be observed. Rather some 
similarity is seen with the Platyrrhacidae, a 
family occurring in the East Indies and in 
Middle America but unrepresented in the 
Ethiopian region. The chief platyrrhacid 
features obtain in the broadened anal seg- 
ment, subantennal swellings, and general 
appearance of the sternites. 

The shape of the preanal scale and the 
dorsal sculpture are very reminiscent of 
certain genera (notably Orodesmus) of the 
Oxydesmidae, a small family occurring in 
Central and West Africa. 

Considering the various developments of 
campodesmids which are duplicated in other 
families in different parts of the world, and 
the absence of any specialization such as 
pronounced sexual dimorphism, modifica- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


tion of the legs of males, etc., I am for the 
present inclined to regard the Campodes- 
midae as representative of a generalized 
ancestral chelodesmoid stock, a supposition 
not unsupported by the present areal 
distribution of the families concerned. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ArrreMs, Cart Grar. Fam. Strongylosomidae. In 
Das Tierreich, Lief. 68: 1-300. 1937. 

BroLeMANN, Henri W. Essai d’une classification 
des Polydesmiens. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 
523-608. 1916. 

Coox, Orator F. Hast African Diplopoda of the 
suborder Polydesmoidea, collected by Mr. 
William Astor Chanler. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
18: 1-111. 1895. 

. A new diplopod fauna in Liberia. Amer. 

Nat. 30: 413-420. 1896. 

. Summary of new Liberian Polydesmoidea. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for 1896: 
257-267. 

Horrman, Ricwarp L. The status of the milliped 
Chelodesmus marxi Cook, and of the family 
name Chelodesmidae. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- 
ington 63: 185-188. 1950. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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CONTENTS 


ErHnNoLocy.—Was the California condor known to the Blackfoot Indians? 
CLAUDEVE. SCHABFFER: 0 .0o.c058 oo ae oe ee. eee 


PaLEONTOLOGY.—New Desmoinesian crinoids. HarreiLu L. STRIMPLE. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Brachiopod homonyms. G. ARTHUR CooPER and 
HepEn Mi. Mutr-Woob. «$52.6 f.. ea 8% clus an. does er 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Substitution for the preoccupied name Hystricina. 
Merritu A. STAINBROOK 


Botany.—A contribution to the lichen flora of Alaska. GrorcGE A. 


Botany.—New or critical Euphorbiaceae from eastern Asia. Hstian 
KENG 


ZooLocy.—New distributional records for two athecate hydroids, Cordylo- 
phora lacustris and Candelabrum sp., from the west coast of North 
America, with revisions of their nomenclature. CaprT HANp and 
G. F. GwItLiam 


Zootoey.—The diplopod family Campodesmidae (Polydesmida). Ricu- 
ARD L. HorrmMan 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


191 


i. t~ 
r| <i AUG 8 ls 33 «/} 
SY NATIONAL Sz 
No. 7 


Juuy 1951 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41 


July 1951 


NO. 7 


PHYSICS.—Measure for measure: Some problems and paradoxes of precision.’ FRAN- 
cis B. StusBexz, National Bureau of Standards. 


Measurements constitute such an essential 
part of science that I feel no apology is 
needed for devoting this address to a rather 
rambling consideration of certain aspects of 
the measurement process that are sometimes 
overlooked. Even Standen in his amusing 
satire Sczence is a sacred cow recognizes the 
importance of measurement in science by 
writing, “If the idols of scientists were piled 
on top of one another in the manner of a 
totem pole, the topmost one would be a 
grinning fetish called Measurement.” 
Though my examples will be drawn for the 
most part from the physical sciences, with 
which I have had first hand experience, I 
want to stress that my theme lies not so 
much in physics as it does in behavioristic 
psychology. The whole system of concepts, 
units, dimensions, and standards by which 
measurements are made is inherently an 
artificial creation; a tool like the artifacts 
about which my predecessor, Dr. Roberts, 
told us a year ago, created by man in his 
own image (or as it often seems to the stu- 
dent, perhaps in the image of the devil) 
and hence showing many of man’s peculi- 
arities both his weaknesses and his virtues. 
The phrase “‘in his own image”’ applies in a 
literal sense to units like the foot, the cubit, 
and the pace. More figuratively we see 
his sense of humor reflected in the name 
“barn” recently given to a unit of 10-4 sq 
em and used to express the effective cross- 
section of an atomic nucleus which the ex- 
perimenter tries to hit with atomic “‘bullets” 
from his cyclotron. Man’s hero-worship is 
shown by the use of the names of great 
scientists as names of units such as the ohm, 

1 Address delivered February 15, 1951, as re- 


tiring president of the Washington Academy of 
ae 
H 1 ( b 


213 


ampere, henry, poise, stoke. His nationalistic 
prejudices have not been absent from the 
discussions which precede the adoption of 
such nomenclature. 

The value of measurement is not limited 
to the obvious fields of scientific research, 
engineering development, control of manu- 
facturing process and the commerce of the 
market place. Each individual needs a 
certain amount of quantitative knowledge 
as a basis for the conduct of his daily life, 
for the appreciation of the world about 
him, and for the appraisal of his fellow men 
and their achievements. Many of our present 
difficulties, I believe, arise from a lack of 
quantitative realization by many persons, 
of the labor equivalent of a billion dollars, 
the energy equivalent of an atomic bomb, 
the dimensions of the Siberian steppe or of 
the Atlantic Ocean. 


CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES 


One definition of ‘‘measurement”’ is ‘‘the 
establishment of a one-to-one relationship 
between the quantity or phenomenon being 
measured and a number.” The value of 
measurement arises because of the very 
useful properties possessed by numbers such 
as identity (e.g., 3 is different from 2), 
order (e.g., 3 follows 2), size (e.g., 3 is larger 
than 2), obedience to the rules of arithmetic, 
algebra, and so on. Here I am using ‘“‘num- 
ber” in a rather general sense, for while 
measurements are commonly expressed by 
the sequence of real numbers, certain kinds 
of quantity common in electrical engineering 
require the use of complex numbers, many 
quantities in physics require vectors and 
some quantities require tensors. It should 
never be forgotten that a numerical measure- 
ment is of value only to the extent that the 


AUS 5 
a ¢ 


1954 


214 


quantity measured also possesses that par- 
ticular property of numbers which is to be 
used. Thus if identity is the only property 
of the quantity concerned, one must not 
use addition. You have all heard of the sea 
captain confronted with a sick seaman whose 
symptoms, according to the instruction 
book, called for medicine no. 11. Bottle no. 
11 unfortunately happened to be empty, 
so the captain made up a potion by adding 
a dose from bottle no. 5 to one from bottle 
no. 6. As an example in the other direction, 
consider the electrical engineering student 
when he first discovers that three terminals 
A, B, C, may be so energized that his volt- 
meter shows 110 volts between A and B, 
110 volts between B and C, and also 110 
volts between C and A. He should not be 
discouraged at this paradox but instead 
should recognize that his alternating voltages 
cannot be characterized merely by their 
magnitude. Account must also be taken of 
their time-phase relations as well. Hence 
they require not merely real numbers but 
the combination of real and imaginary 
components and therefore he should apply 
the rules developed by the mathematicians 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 7 


for such complex quantities, nowadays 
called “phasors.” 

Stevens (/) has systematized the classi- 
fication of scales of measurement as shown 
in Table 1. The third and fourth column 
list the mathematical and statistical proc- 
esses applicable to each type of scale, and 
it is only at his ‘ratio seale” that we get 
what is ordinarily thought of as a true 
measurement. 

The ordinal scales, however, are not to 
be despised. Some, such as the Moh scale 
of hardness which runs from 1 for tale to 10 
for diamond, and the triboelectric series, 
which tries to express the relative polarities 
of the electric charges produced by friction 
between different substances, are relatively 
vague and indefinite. Others, such as the 
number scales of the wire and sheet-metal 
gages, are quite definite, though usually 
purely arbitrary. A partial exception is the 
Brown and Sharpe (or Amer. wire gage) in 
which the diameter, d,, in mils is related 
to the gage number n by the rather com- 
plicated formula 


dn Ls 5(4/92)°™ 


TABLE 1.—A CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 


Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rule. The rules and the resulting kinds of scales are 
tabulated below. The basic operations needed to create a given scale are all those listed in the second column, down to and includ- 
ing the operation listed opposite the scale. The third column gives the mathematical transformations that leave the scale form 
invariant. Any numeral, z, on a scale can be replaced by another numeral «’ where 2’ is the function of 2 listed in column 3. The 
fourth column lists, cumulatively downward, some of the statistics that show invariance under the transformations of column 3, 


Scale SN | eae | eee ae Typical examples 
NOMINAL Determination of | Permutation group Number of cases “Numbering”’ of football 
equality a = f@) Mode players 
where f(«) means any | Contingency correlation Assignment of type or model 
one-to-one substi- | numbers to classes 
tution 
ORDINAL | Determination of Isotonie group Median Hardness of minerals 
greater or less ae! = f(a) Percentiles Quality of leather, lumber, 
where f(r) meansanyin-| Order correlation (type O) wool, ete. 
creasing monotonic Pleasantness of odors 
function 
INTERVAL Determination of General linear group Mean Temperature (Fahrenheit 
equality of intervals | z’=axr+b Standard deviation and Centigrade) 
or differences Order correlation (type I) | Energy 
Product moment correla-| Calendar dates 
tion “Standard scores”’ on 
achievement tests (?) 
RATIO Determination of Similiarity group Geometric mean Length, Weight, Density, Re- 
equality of ratios a’ = ax Coefficient of variation sistance, Ete. 
Decibel transformations Pitch scale (mels) 
v Loudness seale (sones) 


Juty 1951 


Just why our ancestors chose these particu- 
lar numbers remains a mystery, but the 
functional relationship is quite definite and 
often useful. Its persistence in competition 
with still more handy alternatives such as 
d, = (10)°°°-”!*° is a good example of hu- 
man conservatism. 

Another example of what is still primarily 
an ordinal scale is the geologic time scale. 
It is true that by tree rings some 2,000 
years can be counted absolutely, and by 
analyses for C™“ in organic materials good 
approximations can be pushed to some 
20,000 years. Yet this interval is so short 
as to be an almost negligible part of the 
probable 10° years since archeozoic times. 
However, the relative order of superposition 
of the various geological formations con- 
stitutes the primary key for unlocking the 
riddle of the rocks and is fundamental to 
the whole science of geology. 


TEMPERATURE SCALES 


The history of the various temperature 
scales illustrates the transition frem an 
ordinal to a ratio scale. To determine 
whether one body is hotter or cooler than 
another by a more certain method than 
merely touching them, the basic criterion 
is that heat will always tend to flow from 
the hotter to the colder. This criterion auto- 
matically sets up an ordinal scale. To be 
more quantitative, the early workers chose 
some particular property (length, volume, 
or vapor pressure) of some particular ther- 
mometric substance (brass, mercury, or 
alcohol) as a basis for assigning numbers 
to a succession of thermal states and thus 
establishing a complete ordinal scale. How- 
ever, even if two such scales based on dif- 
ferent properties or substances are adjusted 
to coincide at two points; say the freezing 
and boiling points of water, it does not 
follow that they will coincide at intermedi- 
ate points. It is easy to compare the first 
and the twelfth inches on a foot rule by 
sliding an auxiliary fixed interval from one 
end to the other, but there is no correspond- 
ing way to compare the temperature in- 
terval from 32°F to 33°F with the one from 
211°F to 212°F. Warming a piece of copper 
wire from 30.5°F to 31.5°F causes an in- 
crease in its resistance which is almost 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


215 


exactly equal to the increase caused by 
warming it from 31.5°F to 32.5F. In con- 
trast, the effects of warming a mass of 
H,O through these two temperature inter- 
vals are startlingly different. In general, 
the use of a different thermometric sub- 
stance, or of a different property of the same 
substance will lead to a scale which will 
differ somewhat in the numerical value 
assigned to any particular thermal state. 
However, many properties of many sub- 
stances show fairly gradual changes of 
property with temperature, and abrupt 
changes like the melting of ice occur only 
at a few temperatures with any one sub- 
stance. Hence, a scale limited in its definition 
to ranges in which changes of state of the 
thermometric substance do not occur can 
be used in practice as an interval scale. 
The older Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales, 
while strictly speaking merely ordinal, are 
in practice used as interval scales. Until 
one has a true ratio scale, however, there is 
no significance in the old question, ‘“How 
cold is twice as hot as 10° below zero?” 
Kelvin recognized a hundred years ago 
that the dependence of a temperature scale 
on particular substances could be avoided 
by basing the scale on Carnot’s principle. 
This principle states that the efficiency of a 
heat engine operating on a reversible thermo- 
dynamic cycle between two heat-reservoirs, 
depends solely on the temperatures of the 
reservoirs and does not depend on the size 
of the engine or the nature of its working 
fluid. For his first type of thermodynamic 
scale Kelvin (2) postulated that ‘“‘a unit of 
heat in descending from a body A at tem- 
perature T° of this seale, to a body B at 
the temperature (T-1)° would give out the 
same mechanical effect, whatever be the 
number T.”’ By a suitable choice of the 
amount of ‘mechanical effect’? derived per 
“unit of heat’ (i.e., the eficiency) which is 
to correspond to 1° on the new scale and 
by making an arbitrary choice of the 
thermal state to which the number 0 is 
assigned, he set up a thermodynamic scale 
on which the ice point and boiling point 
were 0° and 100°, respectively. This first 
Kelvin seale, however, has little similarity 
to the ordinary Centigrade scale and did 
not come into general use. Later WKelvin 


216 


introduced an alternative postulate, that 
the efficiency of an ideal reversible Carnot 
engine is equal to the quotient of the differ- 
ence in the temperatures of the two reser- 
voirs divided by the temperature of the 
hotter. Kelvin chose arbitrarily to make 
the temperature difference between the ice 
and steam points exactly 100°. Experiments 
have shown that on this scale the ice point 
is close to 273.16°. It has been suggested by 
Giauque (3) that it might be better to 
make the arbitrary choice that of a value, 
say 273.16°, for the ice pomt and in conse- 
quence to let the interval between the steam 
and ice points become subject to experi- 
mental determination and no longer be 
exactly 100°. This change is under serious 
consideration, but has not yet been adopted. 
This second Kelvin scale, because of the 
form of its definition, is truly a ratio scale, 
and there is real significance in applying 
the rules of arithmetic and algebra to the 
numerical values on this scale in thermo- 
dynamic analyses. The first Kelvin scale, 
defined by L = 738 logio T-1798, is an 
interval scale. 

These two thermodynamic scales offer 
some interesting contrasts as shown by 
Table 2 in which an assortment of tempera- 
tures are listed on four different scales. 
At high temperatures the first Kelvin scale 
is more crowded than the usual scales and 
might be useful in expressing the extreme 
temperatures developed within an atomic 
bomb. At the low-temperature end the first 
Kelvin scale is much more expanded and 
extends indefinitely toward « at the cold 
extreme. When displayed along this ex- 
panded scale of temperature, it seems per- 
haps less unnatural to find in this range the 
many strange and novel properties of mat- 
ter like superconductivity and superfluidity 
that recent researches have brought to light. 

The principal moral to be drawn from the 
existence of Kelvin’s first temperature scale 
is the debunking of the concept of an ‘“‘ab- 
solute zero of temperature” as a ‘‘point”’ 
at a finite distance from the ice point and 
perhaps attainable by a finite human effort. 
Instead, there appears the prospect of an 
unlimited field for research containing space 
for any number of new phenomena and 
offering a perennial challenge to science. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


While Kelvin’s second scale is ideal from 
a theoretical standpoint, the experimental 
difficulties in gas thermometry have set 
limits to the accuracy with which the scale 
can be realized in laboratory practice. Be- 
cause of the need for specifying tempera- 
tures within much narrower limits, still 
another scale has been set up on a purely 
empirical foundation. This ‘International 
Temperature Seale’’, officially promulgated 
in 1927 and revised in 1948 (4), is intended 
to represent as closely as possible the Kelvin 
thermodynamic scale, but is defined in 
terms of six fixed points (melting and boil- 
ing points of specified substances) and by 
the use of specified formulas and measuring 
instruments for the interpolation of inter- 
mediate temperatures. From the boiling 
point of oxygen (— 182.970°C) to the freezing 
point of antimony (630.5°C) the inter- 
polating instrument is the platinum resist- 
ance thermometer; from the antimony 
point to the melting point of gold (1063.0°C) 
a platinum to platinum-rhodium thermo- 
couple is used; and above the gold point 
the Planck radiation law. 

The 1927 wording of this scale led to the 


TABLE 2—TEMPERATURE SCALES 


: 7 Kelvin Kel- 
Hahrenheit Centigrade (second) as) 
Ae, 
+ -) + |+ © + 
+ 5X 108), 3 X 106 3 X 108 |+3,000| atomic 
bomb 
+10, 337 +5, 727 6,000 + 992) sun’s sur- 
| face 
+ 6,098 +3,370 3,643 + 830) M.P. of 
tung- 
sten 
2,774 +1, 535 1,808 + 606) M.P. of 
iron 
212 + 100 373.16 + 100) steam 
point 
+ 32 0 273.16 0) ice point 
= ale | ikp.wy 90.19  |— 355] oxygen 
point 
— 462.11 — 268.94 4.22 —1,336) helium 
B.P. 
— 455.62 — 270.89 2.2 —1,545) helium 
lambda 
point 
— 459.58 — 273.09 0.007 —3,370| adiabat. 
demag. 
459.69 273216 0 - 


JuLny 1951 


amusing paradox that for 21 years it was 
officially impossible to measure the freezing 
point of aluminum on the International 
Temperature Scale (5). When measured 
with a standard resistance thermometer 
the freezing point of aluminum is found to 
be 660.01°C. Since this is above the limit 
(660.°C) for which the resistance thermom= 
eter was then standard, it is evident that 
a standard thermocouple should have been 
used. However, if a thermocouple is used, 
the freezing point turns out to be 659.87°C 
which is below the range over which the 
thermocouple is standard, and therefore 
neither value can be considered official. 


LOGARITHMIC SCALES 


- When a particular quantity is of impor- 
tance, and therefore has to be measured over 
a very wide range of values, it is frequently 
convenient to subject the value «x of the 
original quantity to the mathematical trans- 
formation y = log (#/x,), where 2p is a fixed 
reference level and to use the derived 
quantity y, both in graphical representations 
to save space and in common parlance to 
save words. This transformation is useful 
in cases such as the transmission of light 
through a succession of filters of uniform 
density but differing thickness or the trans- 
mission of electrical signals along a com- 
munication circuit. Here the intensity x of 
the transmitted effect varies with the thick- 
ness of the filter or the distance along the 
line in an exponential way so that its 
logarithm y varies linearly with thickness or 
distance. The effect of an interposed filter 
or of inserted electrical apparatus is to 
reduce x by a factor and to subtract a cor- 
responding amount from y. The convenience 
of combining these effects additively has led 
by a gradual evolutionary process which is 
still incomplete to the invention of the deci- 
bel, the neper and similar units for logarith- 
mic scales. Until x is fixed such logarithmic 
or “‘decibel’’ scales are themselves interval 
seales of y derived from ratio scales of x. 
Careless handling of decibels can lead to 
a minor paradox. By definition a bel in y 
corresponds to a change in x by a factor of 
10. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. Hence, 
one might conclude that a decibel was a 
change by one-tenth of 10 or 1, which is no 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


217 


change at all! More seriously, real confusion 
does arise because at present the word 
“decibel” is used with a plurality of mean- 
ings. Primarily as a pure number, one 
decibel is the change in the logioa which 
corresponds to a change by a factor of 
10 in x (W/10 = 1.259...). Hence 10 
successive steps in y each of 1 decibel will 
correspond to a total change in y of 10 
decibels or 1 bel and thus to a factor of 10 
in x. Secondly, it is common practice to 
state the power level in a communication or 
sound-measuring circuit as being so many 
decibels. In this phraseology, the number of 
decibels really expresses logarithmically the 
ratio of the actual electrical power to some 
conventionally chosen reference power level, 
xo, often 1 milliwatt, but sometimes by 
various writers as 6, 10, 12.5 or 1000 milli- 
watts, and all too frequently not stated at 
all. Thirdly, the level of sound or noise is 
usually expressed as a particular number of 
decibels, when really this number expresses 
its ratio to some unstated basic reference 
sound level. The reference level is now 
pretty definitely standardized at that pro- 
duced by a sound pressure of 0.0002 dyne 
per square centimeter at 1,000 cycles per 
second. It is this somewhat perverted use 
of “decibel” as a unit of sound level which 
is most commonly found in the lay press. 
Another reason why logarithmic scales 
have been found convenient lies in the prop- 
erties of the human senses (at least those of 
sight and hearing). Weber found experi- 
mentally that the least discernible increment 
Az in stimulus is approximately proportional 
to the value x of the stimulus already pres- 


ent. Thus = = k. Fechner then introduced 


the postulate that all ‘‘least discernible 
increments” Ax in stimulus 2 corresponded 
to equal steps Ay in a scale of sensation, y. 
The combination of these relations gives 


, Ax 
AV — see ze 
v 


which by integration leads to y = KA log 
x + C. Thus the decibel scale based on 
the purely physical stimulus turns out to 
offer possibilities as a scale for measuring 
the purely psychological quantity “‘sensa- 
tion”. 


218 


However, Fechner’s postulate of forming 
a sensation scale by adding least perceptible 
increments is not the only possibility and 
workers in psychophysics are actively try- 
ing out experimental procedures by which 
sensation scales can be built up on the 
basis of judging equal ratios of sensations or 
by judging equality of fairly large incre- 
ments in sensation. Unfortunately these 
scales do not always coincide with that 
based on Fechner’s hypothesis and the 
science of psychophysics has a long way to 
go before it can become truly quantitative. 


COLOR 


Even more complicated to measure than 
quantities representable by vectors or ten- 
sors are complex quantities having a plural- 
ity of attributes that are different in nature. 
A good example is the color of an illuminated 
surface. Here long experimentation has 
shown that in any case three independent 
attributes are involved. In different schemes 
for the measurement of color, these may 
be chosen in different ways. In the psycho- 
logical color solid all possible colors are 
considered as occupying points in a 3-di- 
mensional continuum. Along one axis the 
attribute of lightness varies continuously 
from black at the bottom, through pro- 
gressively lighter grays to white at the top. 
Around this “gray axis” the hues of the 
spectrum can be arranged in order with a 
sequence of purples bridging across from 
the violet to the red. For any lightness and 
hue there is a third radial graduation in 
saturation from maximally saturated colors 
at the extremity through less and less sat- 
urated colors to gray at the axis. The three 
cylindrical coordinates of a point in this 
solid thus can serve to measure a color. 

An alternative system is shown in Fig. 1, 
which shows the ICI chromaticity diagram 
for color notation and measurement. Here 
the three independent variables may, very 
roughly, be described as measures of ‘‘red- 
ness”’ plotted as the abscissa, x; “‘greenness”’ 
plotted as ordinate, y; and “‘brightness”’, 
which is to be thought of as plotted per- 
pendicular to the z-y plane and as not affect- 
ing the chromaticity. In Fig. 1 the curved 
outer boundary represents the locus of 
spectrum colors and the straight chord 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


represents the purples obtainable by super- 
position in various proportions of violet 
and red. The diagram shown has the useful 
property that the color obtained by super- 
posing any two other colors lies on the 
straight line which joins the two component 
colors. Other diagrams can be derived by 
linear transformations from the one shown 
and have other useful properties. 

The paradoxical feature of this diagram 
lies in the fact that the standard of redness 
or of greenness, 1.e., the points x = 1, y = 0 
and x = 0, y = 1 he outside the spectrum 
locus so that each of these convenient and 
regularly used standards for color measure- 
ments is quite literally a “light that never 
was on sea or land.”’ 


QUADERGY 


Man is a very imaginative animal and 
often conjures up whimsical notions that 
have only the most tenuous contact with 
reality. Yet, if such a notion fits into the 
pattern of his thought habits, he may wish 
to measure quantitatively such an entirely 
imaginary concept. An example of this is 
found in the transmission of electrical energy 
in an alternating-current circuit. The trans- 
mission of energy proper results from the 
cooperation of simultaneous alternations of 
the current and of the voltage in step with 
one another. The resultant transfer of 
energy is very real, for it is the thing which 
nowadays in a very literal sense ‘“‘makes the 
world go ’round.”’ The annual bill for it in 
the U. S. A. is some $4-billion. However, 
superposed on this phenomenon, there is, 
except in very special cases, an additional 
effect often described as the presence of a 
spurious component of current which is 
pulsating 90° out of step with the pulsations 
of the voltage. A physicist describes this 
situation in realistic terms by stating that 
under these circumstances an additional 
definite fixed amount of energy is oscillating 
back and forth along the transmission line 
so as to provide the necessary energy to 
magnetize the motors during those times in 
the cycle when they need to be magnetized 
and going back to be restored to the genera- 
tor for the intervals when the motors do not 
need it. The actual amount of energy in- 
volved is small, being usually of the order 


Junty 1951 


of that delivered by the main energy flow 
in 1/240 second. 

The electrical engineer, or, more specifi- 
cally, the load dispatcher of a power com- 
pany, looks at the matter from a very 
different point of view. He knows that the 
presence of even a small oscillating com- 
ponent of energy produces additional heating 


0.900 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


219 


in his equipment, leads to far greater drops 
in voltage between his generators and the 
customers’ lamps than does an equal amount 
of in-phase current, and requires either the 
installation of expensive capacitor banks or 
costly modifications in the design of his 
generators. He feels, quite justly, that the 
customer whose load is such as to require 


-800 


-7100 


505 


YELLOWISH 


GREEN 


YELLOWISH ORANGE 


400 


(0) 
-300 


ICI ILLUMINANT "C" 


-200 


at caar. 
PIN 


100 


0.000 100 


800 


x 


Fria. 1.—Color-mixture diagram according to the 1931 I.C.L. standard observer and coordinate system. 


220 
much of this magnetizing service should pay 
in proportion both to the activity of the 
oscillating energy required and to the time 
during which the service is maintained. 
Accordingly, he just invents a name for the 
product of the out-of-phase component of 
the current multiplied by the voltage. Many 
years ago in the days of the ‘‘horseless 
carriage” and of “‘wireless telegraphy”’ this 
mathematical product was called ‘‘wattless 
watts.” But this barbarism proved too 
crude even for the engineers, and the more 
dignified term ‘“‘reactive power’ has come 
into use to distinguish it from the “active 
power” which measures the true average 
rate of flow of energy. The unit of reactive 
power has been christened the ‘‘var.”’ 
Varmeters, which indicate the average 
value of reactive power, and varhourmeters, 
which integrate the reactive power with 
respect to time over the billing period and 
which are accurate to a few tenths of 1 
percent, are on the market. Yet the quantity 
measured by a varhourmeter is a purely 
mental creation which is imagined to flow 
steadily from the supply circuit into an 
induction motor to keep it on the average 
properly magnetized and which the operator 
likes to think of as being ‘“‘generated” by 
a static capacitor or an over-excited syn- 
chronous generator. In fact, it was only a 
year or two ago that they got around to 
christening this imaginary quantity 
“quadergy” and thus gave a name, if not a 
local habitation, to this ‘airy nothing”’ 
which they had been measuring with high 
accuracy for many years. 


SYSTEMS OF UNITS 


Ideal systems.—So far we have considered 
units and scales for the measurement of 
only single (simple or complex) quantities. 
A collection of separate unrelated units, like 
those of the English ‘‘system,”’ can, of 
course, be used to measure a variety of 
different quantities. Such primitive groups 
of units tend to “grow up like Topsy” in 
each new art or industry, as witness: the 
denier (a size of thread such that 450 
meters weigh 0.05 gram) in textiles; the 
printers’ em; the hogshead, the turnip 
bushel which ranges from 42 pounds in 
Missouri to 50 in Tennessee and to 60 in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


Kentucky; a prize example of an inco- 
herent unit actually used in certain govern- 
ment reports for the effectiveness of an 
aircraft radiator is ‘‘the Btu dissipated per 
minute, per inch of radiator thickness, per 
square foot of frontal area, per mile per 
hour air speed, per degree centigrade tem- 
perature difference.”’. The use of a set of 
such unrelated units requires the memorizing 
of a large number of numerical conversion 
factors. How many cubic inches in a quart? 
How many square yards in an acre? 

In contrast to such accidental growths, 
the ideal would be a single system of units 
applicable to all branches of science, in 
which the magnitude of each unit was 
deducible by an obvious and simple relation 
from the units of simpler and more funda- 
mental quantities. The metric system which 
sprang full-fledged from the braims of a 
group of French savants constitutes the 
outstanding example of such a coherent 
system of units. Here not only are the 
various denominations of units on any one 
scale related by simple decimal factors, but 
the units for more complex quantities are 
related to the more fundamental quantities 
by simple defining equations. 

The difficulty in achieving an ideal and 
universal system of units in science arises 
not because such coherent systems are hard 
to construct, but because they are too easy. 
As a result the world is now suffermg from 
a surfeit of alternative systems of units. 
The few fundamental units chosen at the 
start by one author may differ in size from 
those chosen by another (as between the 
centimeter-gram-second systems and the 
meter-kilogram-second systems). Moreover, 
an equation which to one person seems to 
be simple, convenient and the obvious one 
to use, may seem to another much less 
simple and convenient than does some 
different alternative equation. 

Choices as to number of fundamentals— 
Even the number of ‘“‘fundamental’’ quanti- 
ties chosen initially on which to build the 
rest of the structure is the result of a more 
or less arbitrary choice. In the field of 
electromagnetism, systems based on using 
3, 4, and 5 fundamental quantities have been 
proposed, and many gallons of printers’ ink 
have been wasted in arguments on which is 
“correct.” 


Juny 1951 


As a simpler example of the possibility of 
such alternative systems consider the unit 
of mass in the metric system. The gram is 
now defined independently and precisely as 
one-thousandth the mass of a particular 
lump of Pt-Ir alloy. The unit of force, the 
dyne, is then derived as a force of such 
magnitude that it gives to one gram an 
acceleration of one centimeter per second 
per second. Using this system of units, it is 
then found by the famous Cavendish ex- 
periment that two spherical masses M and 
M’ placed a distance r center to center, will 
exert a gravitational force F on each other 
given by 


ho GMM! /r (1) 


Here G is an experimental constant which 
has been found to have the value 6.6-107% 
em?/gm sec’. 

This procedure seems simple and con- 
venient to a physicist, but consider it from 
the point of view of an imaginary as- 
tronomer. Why drag in a particular hunk of 
a particular alloy? Why not set up a really 
simple system with only two fundamentals— 
length and time? Why not simplify equation 
(1) by setting G = 1 and define unit mass as 
such a quantity of matter that when placed 
one centimeter from an equal mass and then 
released the gravitational attraction will 
cause a relative acceleration of one centi- 
meter per second per second? The unit of 
mass in this system is equal to 1.5-107 
grams. From a purely logical standpoint, a 
system based on two fundamental units 
defined in this way is certainly simpler than 
the one in current use. 

This kind of process can be extended 
further, and by using additional constants 
of nature such for instance as the velocity of 
light and the electronic charge in the same 
sort of way as G was used, a system can be 
set up in which none of the fundamental 
units is arbitrary or conventional. As we 
shall see later, the systems of units used in 
electromagnetism are based on processes of 
just this type using equations analogous to 
equation (1), in which numerical values, 
sometimes unity and sometimes other values, 
such for instance as 107/47, are arbitrarily 
assigned to the coefficient in the force 
equation. 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


221 


Choices of defining equations.—An example 
of how diversity can result from differences 
in the choice of defining equations when 
setting up a consistent, coherent system of 
units from a few chosen as fundamental, can 
be seen by considering the simple step from 
length to area. At first sight it seems very 
obvious that if the unit of length is the inch, 
the unit of area must be the square inch. 
This, however, does not necessarily follow. 
Euclidean geometry tells us merely that for 
geometrically similar figures the areas are 
proportional to the squares of the linear 
dimensions; that is, 


A = kP  @) 


We are, however, entirely free to fix the 
size of the unit of area, and thus the value 
of A for a given l by arbitrarily choosing 
some value for k. If we regard a square as 
the obvious “‘simplest”’ shape for a unit 
area and set k = 1 for this shape, we can 
deduce that the area A, of a rectangle of 
sides a and b is A, = ab square inches and 
that the area A. of a circle of diameter 1 is 


U0 = * O 5 
Ala = A ? square inches. This, however, is 


not the only ‘‘simple’ procedure. The 
ancients certainly considered the circle as 
the simplest and most magically significant 
shape. Why should we not choose to write 
for the area of a circle of diameter / 


A,=[ (3) 
In these units, the area of a rectangle be- 


dab. : Sgt 
comes A, = —— circular inches. This is 
Tv 


: : 4. 
equivalent to choosing k = — for a square. 
T 


Another possibility is to choose the equi- 
lateral triangle as the shape of the unit area 
for which k = 1. In these units if / is the 


5 


Cc 
leneth of one side, k = for a square and 
2 4/3 I 


the area of a rectangle is 8 ab//3 triangular 
inches. Still another possibility might be to 
choose the hexagon as the unit shape. This 
would perhaps seem simplest to a honey bee. 


This makes k = > >= for a square and the 
OV 2) 


: tab 
area of a rectangle becomes -—>= hexagonal 
OV 3 


222 


inches. The triangle with three sides is 
surely “simpler” than the square with four. 
Both the triangle and the hexagon, like the 
square can be fitted together to measure an 
area by the straightforward process of filling 
it with small tiles, each of unit area and 
counting the number thereof. 

One of these alternatives is not a mere 
whimsey. In the electric cable industry, the 
cross-sectional areas of wires are always 
expressed in terms of the circular inch or the 
circular mil, these units being defined as the 
areas of circles having diameters of 1 inch 
and 0.001 inch, respectively. To a workman 
in a wire factory the use of square inches 
seems obviously clumsy and unnatural, nor 
is he at all concerned by the fact that unit 
circular tiles can not be fitted together to 
fill and thus measure an area even if it is 
circular. 

I have stressed the arbitrariness of the 
choice of the square inch as opposed to the 
equally possible circular inch, not so much 
because of the industrial utility of the latter 
as because of the close analogy of this choice 
to the question of ‘rationalization’? which 
has wracked the electrical art with prolonged 
and sometimes violent discussion for 60 
years. 

Evght electrical systems—The field of 
electromagnetism has suffered perhaps more 
than any other branch of science from a 
plethora of “‘simple, coherent, logical” 
systems of measurement, and I shall try to 
outline some of the reasons for this unhappy 
situation. 

In the early days the simplest way to 
define a unit electric charge seemed to be to 
specify that when placed unit distance away 
from an equal charge the force of mutual 
repulsion should be unity. 

In other words, it seemed simplest to let 
k. = 1 in the Coulomb force equation 


f= k.QQ'/?? (4) 


You will see that this process is exactly 
analogous to that of our imaginary as- 
tronomer who set up a derived unit of mass 
coherent with length and time. Starting 
from the unit charge thus defined, the whole 
system of centimeter-gram-second electro- 
static units has been built up by a process 
which welds the electrical units firmly to 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 7 


those of the older mechanical system, and 
which requires no introduction of any 
additional new fourth unit. 

It is unfortunately equally easy to write 


ee minnie ne (5) 


for two unit magnetic poles m and m’ and 
to choose k,, = 1. This gives (Gf 7 is in 
centimeters and F’ in dynes) the egs electro- 
magnetic system which is a perfectly good 
alternative system. Maxwell used both 
systems in his famous treatise. It can be 
deduced that if one sticks to either system 
alone, the relation kk, = c? holds. Here ¢ is 
the velocity of propagation of an electro- 
magnetic disturbance in empty space. This 
is experimentally found to be ¢ = 3.10!° 
em/sec 1.e., the velocity of lght. Other 
authors of theoretical treatises combine 
these two systems using electrostatic units 
for electrical quantities and electromagnetic 
units for magnetic quantities. This hybrid 
third system is called the ‘‘Gaussian Sys- 
tem” and its use requires that the parameter 


-c be inserted explicitly in Maxwell’s field 


equations at the proper places. 

Practical electricians, however, found it 
inconvenient to use units so small that it 
took 100,000,000 of them to equal the 
voltage of a voltaic cell and 1,000,000,000 
of them to equal the resistance of a wire of 
reasonable dimensions. Under the wise 
guidance of Maxwell and his colleagues on a 
committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science there was set up a 
fourth group of units called “practical”? in 
which the units were exact decimal multiples 
of the corresponding units of the egs electro- 
magnetic system. The electrical units of 
this group were given individual names— 
coulomb, volt, ampere, ohm, henry, farad— 
thus immortalizing the honored pioneers of 
electrical science. 

The experimental process by which the 
electrical resistance of a wire standard is 
determined in terms of length, mass and time 
is exceedingly difficult and laborious. Hence, 
it was only natural that our forefathers 
should set up ‘‘as a system of units repre- 
senting the above and sufficiently near to 
them” still a fifth system in which the unit 
of resistance was defined as the resistance of 
a column of mercury of specified dimensions 


JuLy, 1951 


at a specified temperature and the unit of 
current was that which would deposit silver 
from a solution of silver nitrate at a specified 
rate. This fifth system was christened the 
“International System of Electrical Units” 
and had legal status from 1894 to 1947. As 
far back as 1908 it was recognized that the 
“International” units differed by small but 
significant amounts from the practical 
multiples of the cgs electromagnetic units. 
Experimental techniques for evaluating with 
adequate accuracy the “‘true”’ or “‘absolute”’ 
values to assign to standards of resistance or 
of electromotive force were gradually de- 
veloped; and effective January 1, 1948, the 
world shifted its basis back to the units of 
the absolute practical group. The ‘“‘Inter- 
national System”’ has therefore now been a 
dead issue for three years. ‘“May it rest in 
peace.” (6.) 

The six electrical units of the absolute 
practical group are simply and coherently 
related to each other and to the mechanical 
joule and watt, but the powers of 10 by 
which they are related to the cgs electro- 
magnetic system are arbitrary, so that the 
system as a whole is not coherent. As a 
result, an experimenter normally makes his 
measurements in practical units. Then he 
applies the proper factors to convert his 
results to units of the self-consistent cgs 
electromagnetic system. The insertion of 
these values in the theoretical equations 
enables him to predict future phenomena 
quantitatively. A reconversion back to the 
practical units then shows him what values 
to expect in his later verification measure- 
ments. 

By a happy coincidence there is a possi- 
bility of avoiding the necessity for these 
repeated conversions and for memorizing 
a plurality of numerical conversion factors. 
This was pointed out at the turn of the 
century by Giorgi (7). If one takes for the 
basic mechanical units the meter, the kilo- 
eram and the second, and if one assigns 
arbitrarily to the coefficient /,, in equation 
(5) the value 10’ instead of unity, it turns out 
that the practical absolute electrical units 
automatically show up as members of the 
resulting self-consistent system. This sixth 
system in our list is labelled the ‘‘Meter- 
kilogram-second-ampere”’ or ‘“‘Giorgi’’ sys- 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


223 


tem. Most writers who use this system prefer 
to consider it as based on four independent 
fundamental quantities rather than .on the 
classical three. This is equivalent to con- 
sidering that the coefficient /,, 1s not a pure 
number but that it has dimensions. In 
terms of length, mass, time and electric 
current as fundamental quantities, the di- 
mensions of k,, turn out to be [J (? M! [| 
Thus in equation (5) the arbitrary assign- 
ment of a numerical value to k,, fixes the 
magnitude of the unit of m and hence of the 
ampere and other electrical units. On the 
other hand, the arbitrary choice of an 
electrical quantity, for instance current, as 
fundamental, fixes the dimensions of mag- 
netic pole strength and by way of equation 
(5) fixes the dimensions of k,,. 

The assignment to k,, of dimensions and a 
value other than unity has brought forcibly 
into the limelight a very disgraceful situa- 
tion which has existed for a long time in the 
field of magnetic units. The trouble shows up 
clearly in an equation, which can be found 
in almost any textbook more than fifteen 
years old, and which relates the magnetic 
induction, B, to the resultant magnetizing 
force, H, and the intensity of magnetization, 
J, at any point in a bar of iron, 


B=H + 4rJ (6) 


This equation may profitably be considered 
the definition of J. If k,, is dimensionless, 
B, H, and J all have the same dimensions, 
whether or not they are quantities of the 
same physical nature, and, if the magnitude 
of k» is unity, then numerical values are 
correctly indicated by equation (6) as 
written. However, if /,, has dimensions and 
is equal to 107 we must write either 


B 


LOSE Ard (7) 


or B= 107 @ + 47) (8) 
According to the former “intensity of magne- 
tization” is defined as a quantity having the 
same dimensions as magnetic induction. 
According to the latter “intensity of magne- 
tization” has the same dimensions as 
magnetizing force. There is nothing in the 
equations of the earlier literature which 
used k,, = 1 to indicate which concept the 


224 


writer preferred. In recent textbooks some 
authors use one and some the other meaning 
for the words “intensity of magnetization,” 
while still others dodge the issue. The same 
ambiguity exists in the related concepts of 
magnetic moment and magnetic pole 
strength. Because of the differences in 
current usage, national and international 
standardizing bodies hesitate to decide the 
issue and in the meantime the volume of 
ambiguous and conflicting literature grows 
apace! 

Still another question regarding electrical 
units which had been left unanswered for 
some 60 years is ‘‘to rationalize or not to 
rationalize’. The word “rationalize” is here 
used with a highly specialized meaning which 
perhaps can be best understood by an 
analogy with the case of the circular inch as 
a unit of area. In passing from length to 
area by choosing k = 1 in equation (2) for 
the case of a circular shaped unit area the 
simple equation (3) resulted for circular 
areas in general, and as a consequence of 
this, the factor 7 appeared in the formulas 
which involved rectangular shapes. 

Similarly the electric or magnetic field 
around a point charge or pole has a spherical 
symmetry. Hence, the setting of k. = 1 in 
equation (4) or of k, = 1 in equation (5) 
which relates to point charges and poles 
insures that a will not appear in the re- 
sulting equations for arrangements having 
spherical or circular symmetry such as those 
for the capacitance of a sphere of radius 7, 


C= & (9) 


or for the magnetizing force at a radius r 
from a long straight cylindrical conductor 
carrying a current J 


Jel = PAY AP (10) 
On the other hand, the factor 7 appears 
instead in many other formulas where it 
would not be expected, as in that for the 
capacitance between rectangular plates of 
area A and separation ¢ 


(11) 


or for the magnetizing force inside a long 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


solenoid of square cross section wound with 
n turns per unit length 


H = 4nnl (12) 


Heaviside pointed out that ‘‘the unnatural 
suppression of the 42 in the formulas of 
central force, where it has a right to be, 
drives it into the blood, there to multiply 
itself, and afterward break out all over the 
body of electromagnetic theory.” As a 
“yadical cure for this eruption of 47’s” he 
urged a shift to what he labelled a more 
“rational” set of units, and himself consis- 
tently used a ‘‘rationalized” system in which 
k Was set equal to 1/472. This system of units, 
the seventh in our list, has been used in a 
number of theoretical treatises and is usually 
designated the ‘‘Heaviside-Lorentz” sys- 
tem. Its units differ by various powers of 
the incommensurable factor ~/4z from those 
of the absolute practical system and for 
this reason have never come into general 
use. 

A related procedure applicable to the 
MKSA system and sometimes referred to as 
“sub-rationalization” or “total rationaliza- 
tion” involves writing equation (5) in the 


form 

i = alle é ) mn 

An \4r r 

where the quantity in the parentheses is the 
reciprocal of what is usually called the 
“permeability of space.’’ The resulting sys- 
tem of units, the eighth on our list, is 
designated the “‘rationalized MKSA” or the 
“rationalized Giorgi’ system. The Inter- 
national Electrotechnical © Commission, 
which in 1935 had voted its approval of the 
Giorgi system, took the further step in 
July 1950 of adopting this form of rationali- 
zation. 

Recent developments in the radio field 
have brought the practical engineer and 
laboratory worker into much closer contact 
with the theorist and pedagogue than ever 
before, to the great benefit of both. The 
rationalized MKSA system offers advantages 
to both, which I believe will suffice to bring 
it into very general use in the electrical 
field in the not very distant future. It can 


(13) 


Juny 1951 


easily be extended to cover all branches of 
physical science. A name, ‘‘newton,’’ has 
been assigned to its unit of mechanical force, 
but I have seen no indication that it is 
displacing the entrenched cgs units in 
theoretical mechanics or those of the 
mechanical engineers’ units based on the 
kilogram force. 


CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS 


The various ways that have been or are 
currently in use for defining units of measure- 
ment fall naturally into a number of clas- 
ses. In early work, individual or personal 
standards were used such as Galileo’s pulse, 
with which he timed the pendulous swings 
of the chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa; 
Fahrenheit’s body temperature, which fixed 
the 100° point on his original temperature 
seale; the pieces of iron and brass wire used 
by Ohm; the foot; the pace; and, all too 
often even in current publications, a milli- 
meter deflection of an undefined galva- 
nometer of unspecified sensitivity. Following 
these, came particular artifacts such as 
bronze cubits, intended to embody the 
length of the king’s arm, and perhaps some 
dimensions incorporated in the Egyptian 
pyramids. The supreme examples of such 
artifacts are the standard prototype meter 
and kilogram, which now repose in the 
vaults at the International Bureau of 
Weights and Measures. 

To secure reproducibility, however, defi- 
nitions based on natural objects have 
frequently been used. Examples of such are 
the barley-corn, and at the other extreme, 
the earth-quadrant, which was originally 
used in the definition of the meter, and our 
present time standard, the rotation of the 
earth. In a slightly different category are 
definitions based on the physical or chemical 
properties of specific substances. In this 
class were the definition of the International 
Ohm as the resistance of a specified column 
of mercury and that of the International 
Ampere as the electric current which would 
produce electrochemical action at a specified 
rate. The fixing of the kilogram by the 
density of water and the setting up of a 
thermometric scale by the relative thermal 
expansion of mercury and glass and by the 
use of standard melting and boiling points 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


225 


are other examples. The old definition of the 
curie as the unit of radioactivity also comes 
in this category, because it was the activity 
of a specified amount (1 gram) of a specified 
aggregation of substances. 

A still different category is the use of the 
properties of individual atoms as distinct 
from the properties of matter in bulk. Thus, 
the new curie and the rutherford, defined as 
the activity corresponding to 3.700 * 101° 
and 10° atomic disintegrations per second 
respectively are philosophically distinct from 
the old curie. In this atomic class are the 
use of the wave lengths of cadmium radiation 
or more recently of that from the mercury 
198 isotope as standards of length, and the 
frequency of oscillation of the ammonia 
molecule in the “atomic clock”’ (8). 


EVOLUTION OF UNITS 


In all fields there have been in progress 
evolutionary shifts in the choice of units. 
The parallel developments of the electrical 
units and that of the temperature scale 
illustrate this. In both fields, the early 
workers used measuring schemes based on 
properties of matter such as thermal ex- 
pansion of mercury in glass on the one hand, 
and the electromotive force of particular 
voltaic cells on the other. Theoretical 
relations were then worked out and resulted 
in the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature 
scale and the egs electromagnetic and elec- 
trostatic unit systems of Maxwell. In each 
field, however, the need for higher precision 
than could be obtained in the experimental 
realization of the theoretical units forced the 
introduction of an auxiliary system based 
again on the properties of matter in bulk. 
These auxiliary systems, the ‘“‘International”’ 
electrical units and the ‘International 
Temperature Seale” formed the basis for all 
precise scientific measurements as well as for 
commercial operations, although the theo- 
retical unit systems continued to be recog- 
nized in parallel with them as being of an 
even higher echelon. The electrical art has 
finally reached a level where the theoretical 
system can be realized experimentally with 
an accuracy at least comparable with that 
attainable with the auxiliary system and has 
therefore sloughed off the latter. The tem- 
perature scale has not yet reached this 


226 


enviable position, but perhaps will do so in 
the not too distant future. 

The evolution of the units of length and 
mass have followed a somewhat different 
pattern. At the introduction of the metric 
system, the earlier arbitrary units embodied 
in artifacts were displaced by the units 
based theoretically on the earth-quadrant 
and the density of water. As in the other 
fields, the demand for ever increased ac- 
curacy forced the abandonment of the 
theoretical values for an auxiliary system 
which in this case consisted of two simple 
artifacts, the prototype standard meter bar 
and the prototype kilogram mass. There is 
now pending a shift of the unit of length to 
an atomic basis, the wave length of radiation 
from Heg!**, but it will probably be a long 
time before techniques for counting indi- 
vidual atoms can be developed to their 
logical climax of enabling the mass of the 
proton to be used as a practical standard. 

The measurement of time has shown a still 
different history. The habits of mankind are 
so closely geared to the astronomical perio- 
dicities that from earliest antiquity the unit 
of time has been based on the rotation of 
the earth. The recent development of 
“atomic’”’ clocks, the unit of which is based 
on some natural molecular frequency, such 
as that of ammonia, offers the first sig- 
nificant departure from this basis. However, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 7 
it seems safe to predict that no matter 
how rapid and successful the evolution of a 
laboratory time system based on atomic 
units may be, and no matter what vagaries 
it may show to exist in the motion of the 
earth, there will always be, in common use, 
an astronomical time system based on the 
mean solar day. 

I hope that I have shown that the process 
of measurement is, after all, a very human 
activity; that in it may be found illustrations 
of the foibles as well as the wisdom of 
Homo sapiens; that units are unfortunately 
not fixed, immutable creations of nature, but 
merely human constructs; that there is a 
real progression in the evolution of systems’ 
of measurement; and that their present im- 
perfections should be a challenge to the 
scientists of the future. 


REFERENCES 


(1) Stpvens, 8. 8S. Science 103: 677. 

(2) THomson, W. Phil. Mag. 33: 313. 1848. 

(8) GrauquE, W. F. Nature 143: 623. 1939. 

(4) Stimson, H. F. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand- 
ards 42: 209. 1949. 

(5) WensEL, H. T. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand- 
ards 22: 376. 1939. 

(6) Stusper, F. B. Nat. Bur. Standards Cire. 


1946. 


475. 1949. 

(7) Gtora1, G. Trans. Int. Elec. Congr. St. Louis 
1: 136. 1904. 

(8) Huntoon, R. D., and Fano, U. Nature 166: 
167. 1950. 


MATHEMATICS.—A problem in geometric probability. JEROME CORNFIELD and 
Haroup W. CHauktry, National Cancer Institute. (Communicated by Richard 


K. Cook.) 


1. INTRODUCTION 


We have recently published a description 
of a method for estimating volume-surface 
ratios for closed 3-dimensional figures of 
arbitrary shapes (/). The method involves 
throwing a line of fixed length, 7, at random 
im a space containing the figure. We count 
the number of times either of the two end 
points fall in the interior of the figure, and 
denote it by h for hits, and the number of 
times the line intersects the surface of the 
figure and denote it by c for cuts. The 
method depends upon the fact that 


ido) ee 


Gat) r Wey oS 


where V is volume and S is surface and 
FE stands for expected value. 

We note that (1.1) holds for reentrant as 
well as nonreentrant figures and is conse- 
quently more general than the nonpara- 
metric relationships of this type, such as 
Crofton’s (2), that have been previously 
established. This note is devoted to a proof 
of (1.1). 


2. A DEFINITION OF A RANDOMLY 
THROWN LINE 


In what follows we assume that in throw- 
ing a line of length r at random (a) there is a 
uniform probability that one end point, P, 
will take on any position in the space and 


Juny 1951 


(b) there is a uniform probability that the 
other end point, P!, will take any position 
on the surface of a sphere with center at P 
and radius r. This is an obvious generaliza- 
tion of the assumptions usually made in 
problems of geometric probability in two 
dimensions, e.g., in Buffon’s needle problem. 
We have presented evidence elsewhere (/) 
which indicates that this appears to provide 
a satisfactory description of the physical 
process of throwing a line at random. 


3. THE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE 
NUMBER OF HITS 


We shall show 


2Vn 


(3.1) ale 


J) = 


where X is the volume of the space in which 
the line segment falls and n is the number 
of throws. Because there are difficulties in 
visualizing the necessary three dimensional 
figure, we shall begin with the two dimen- 
sional problem. 

We start with a closed figure, Ff’, of area 
A in a square of side X1/?-2r (Fig. 1). The 
end point of the line segment, P, will occupy 
with uniform probability all positions in the 
square of side X'/?. Since the angle that the 
line segment makes with the X axis, 9, 
varies from 0 to z, the point, P!, will occupy 
all but some corner positions in the square 
of side X!/2 + 2r. 

If we consider fixed values of y and 6, 
the probability that the point P will fall 
inside the figure is f(y)/X"?, where f(y) 
is the width of the figure at ordinate y. 
(For values of y falling outside the figure 
f(y) = 0.) Similarly, the probability that 
for fixed values of y and @ the point P! 
will fall inside the figure is f(y, 6)/X1?. 
If we now let y vary from 0 to X12, but 
hold 6 fixed, we have 


xe 
Prob: (26h) = = || f(y) dy 
< 0 


(3.2) eas 
Rolo. G2 ell) = =f f(y, @) dy. 


Each integral, obviously, is an expression 
for the area of the figure, A, and is conse- 
quently independent of @. In n throws, 
therefore, the expected number of hits by 


CORNFIELD AND CHALKLEY: PROBLEM IN 


GEOMETRIC PROBABILITY WAT 


Fie. 1 


either the point P or the point P! is An/X. 
Since the expected value of a sum is the 
sum of the expected values, the expected 
number of hits counting both end points is 
2An/X. 

The proof for three dimensions is iden- 
tical except that for the point P we must 
consider the probability that it is included 
in F for fixed values of z, the additional 
dimension, as well as y. Similarly for the 
point P! we must consider the probability 
that it is included in F for fixed values of 
¢@, the angle with the ¢ axis, as well as 6. 
We then have 


il Exes Xe 
Prob. (Pef) = ml i f(z, y) dy dz 
XI Shp 
(3.3) oak 
1 Xg XG 
Prob. (Per) == i | f (2, y, ¢, 0) dy dz 
XS, Sy 


where each integral is an expression for the 
volume of the figure, V, and is consequently 
independent of ¢@ and @. In that case the 
expected number of hits in n throws by 
either the point P or P! is Vn/X, while the 
expected number of hits by both is 2 Vn X. 


4. THE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE 
NUMBER OF CUTS 


We may without loss of essential general- 
ity consider the surface of / as composed 
of m quadrilaterals of area Sy, Sy +--+ S, with 


(4.1) SSP ISS 


228 


If we denote the number of cuts on the 
7» quadrilateral by c;, we have 


c= 2; 


E(c) = DEC) 


Furthermore, since a straight line and a 
quadrilateral can intersect at only one 
point, H(c;) is equal to the probability of 
intersection times the number of throws. 


(4.2) 


Fig. 2 


If we consider the 2** quadrilateral, with 
surface area, S;, the probability that a 
random line of length r will intersect it 
is the probability that the end point P 
will fall inside the parallelepiped with vol- 
ume S,r cos 6 (Fig. 2). From the preceding 
section this probability is 


= Sir cos 6 


for a fixed value of 6 and 


(4.3) 


=o r ie f (8) cos 6 dé 


for 6 varying from 0 to i according to the 


density function f(6) dé. We show in the 
next section that the assumptions of section 
2 imply 


(4.4) (0) dd = — sin 6 dé. 


This is the probability that a random line 
will form the angle 6 with any other fixed 
line in the space. In that case 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


Prob. (P « parall.) 


gor fo cos 6 sin 6 dé 


1 
= ax "i 


(4.5) 


and 


E(e) — oh DSi 


Xan 
(4.6) 
rns 


Den 
Combining (4.6) and (8.1) we obtain (1.1). 


5. THE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION 
OF 0 

We wish the probability that a random 
line, defined as in 2, will form angle 6 with a 
fixed line. We may take this fixed line as a 
radius of the sphere with center at P and 
radius r (Fig. 3). The probability that the 
line with end points P and P! will form an 
angle 6 with a radius of the sphere is the 
probability that the end point P! will fall 
in the circumferential belt of area 


2rvV/r — y? ds 
where y/r = cos 6. Hence 
(5.1) Prob. (P’ € circum. belt) 
2Qr JP = y? ds 
Qrr® : 


= f(0) do = 


Fie. 3 


JuLy 1951 


It is easy to show, however, that 


(6.2) a 2 Ese) 
o.4 SS = Py? . 
so that 

(5.3) f(0) do = — sin 6 dé. 


When y varies from 0 to r, 6 varies from 


CARR: EASTERN INDIAN PRACTICES 


229 


Tv 


5 to 0. If we permit @ to vary in the reverse 


direction, i.e., 0 to us we may delete the 


minus sign. 


REFERENCES 


(1) CHaLKiey, H. W., CornrieLp, J., AND PARK, 
H. A method for estimating volume-sur